1. Final Review Introduction to Psychology (PSYC E-15)
Todd Farchione, Ph.D.
Tommy Chou, M.A.

2. Broad Terminology Idiographic vs. Nomothetic
Idiographic: Study of individuals
Nomothetic: Study of groups and general laws
Holistic vs. Reductionistic
Holistic: Understanding concepts/systems as a whole
Reductionistic: Understanding concepts/systems as interacting parts
Descriptive vs. Experimental
Descriptive data presents characteristics
Experimental data evaluates the results of a controlled change

3. Research Methods Operationalization
Creating measurable, objective definitions of variables, esp. in experimental design
Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variables (IV): what you change (in a controlled manner)
Dependent Variables (DV): what you observe to note the results of changes IV’s

4. Research Design: A Continuum of Structure
Less Structured
More Structured
Naturalistic Observation
Covert non-participation
Overt non-participation
Covert participation
Overt participation
Case Study
Eclectic
Clinical
Observational
Psychometric
Archival
Survey
Questionnaire
Interview
Non-reactive
Archival
Physical Traces
Experiment
Classical experiment
Factorial design
Quasi-experimental
Single-subject design
Idiographic/nomothetic QL
Idiographic QL
Nomothetic QT
Nomothetic QT
Greater structure in the research method generally yields greater precision in psychological measurement. Without intrusion into the daily activities of the participants, naturalistic observation can be employed in a case study, the survey, and quasi-experimental design
Report Formats
N/A
Narrative style
APA poster
APA article

5. Biological Psychology
Phrenology
Previously held beliefs that the shape of the skull could indicate various personality traits
Modularity Doctrine & Current Perspectives
Specific regions and structures found in the brain account for specific functions
Structures bridged by parts such as the corpus collosum
Be sure to understand the major structures and functions of the brain!

6. Psychoanalysis Two meanings: Parts of the psyche Theory of personality
Method of therapy
Parts of the psyche
Id: lower-order desires and drives
Ego: moderates id, superego, and reality
Superego: “moral compass”

9. Behaviorism, Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s dog
Four major components:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Stimulus that naturally produces response (food)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Stimulus that does not naturally produce response, but can after pairing with US (bell)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Natural response to US (salivation in response to food)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response to CS, which occurs even with removal of US (salivation in response to bell)

10. Behaviorism, Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner
Three major components
Discriminative stimulus (SD)
Stimulus preceding response
Operant response (RO)
Target behavior
Response stimulus (SR)
Reinforcement or punishment, depending on the operant response

11. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

12. Operant Conditioning, Response Stimuli
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Reinforcement acts to increase frequency of target behavior
Punishment decreases unwanted behaviors
Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement/Punishment
Positive: adds a stimulus (reinforcement: prize; punishment: electric shock)
Negative: removes a stimulus (reinforcement: alarm; punishment: privileges)
Shaping, prompting, modeling, flooding, and other methods used in conditioning are important as well; be sure to know these concepts!

13. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous vs. Intermittent
Fixed Ratio: Applying reinforcement after a specific number of responses.
Variable Ratio: Applying reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
Fixed Interval: Applying reinforcer after a specific amount of time.
Variable Interval: Applying reinforcer after a variable amount of time

14. Humanistic Psychology
Focus on the human experience
Self-esteem vs. Self-concept
Actualization tendency
Innate predisposition to seek the fullest expression of one’s potential
Person-centered therapy
Client is responsible for guiding therapy and improving his or her own life
Therapist creates growth-inducing environment
Empathy
Genuineness
Unconditional positive regard

15. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

16. Cognitive Psychology Memory Problem solving
Long-term memory
Short-term memory vs. Working memory
Sensory memory
Problem solving
Heuristics – rule-of-thumb strategies, typically experiential
Algorithms – “steps” to problem solving
Parallel distributive processing
Mental capacity to “run” multiple processes in parallel

17. Information Processing

18. Evolutionary Psychology
Evolved psychological mechanisms
Fundamental to individual survival and sexual reproduction
Fears, preferences, or behavioral tendencies resulting from evolutionary pressures
Less predictable and more open to diversity than instinctive behavior
Examples
Mate preference and mating patterns
Group living
Shared expressions and language

19. Social Psychology
Views behavior as a function of people and their environment
Conformity
Asch experiment
Compliance
Milgram experiment
Group dynamics and Social influence
Robber’s cave study
Stanford prison experiment
Bystander effect

20. Social Cognition Attributions
Internal (dispositional) vs. External (situational)
Internal Attributions
External Attributions
Attributions About Oneself
Positive: I did a good job because I’m smart
Negative: I did a bad job because I’m inept
Positive: I did a good job because the task was easy
Negative: I did a bad job because there wasn’t time
Attributions About Others
Positive: She did a good job because she’s smart
Negative: She did a bad job because she’s inept
Positive: She did a good job because it was easy
Negative: She did a bad job because there wasn’t time