1. Learning and Behaviour Learning –Enduring change in behaviour –Due to experience –How something is done Behaviour –Procedures and actions performed –Learning –Non-learning –What is done

2. Types of Learning Habituation/sensitization Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational/vicarious

3. Adaptation Changing conditions Time scales Learning only one type of adaptation

4. Innate Behaviours

5. Evolved Environmental change Re: Learning –Roots in innate behaviours –Parallels Homeostasis, reflexes, tropisms, modal (fixed) action patterns

6. Evolutionary Theory Voyage of the Beagle (1831-1836) On the Origin of Species (1859) Artificial, natural, and sexual selection Adaptation to environment

7. Natural Selection Variation, inheritance, selection Differential reproductive success No intelligent design Level of the individual Change over generations

8. Examples: Physical Evolution Australopithecus afarensis (400cc), Homo erectus (1200cc), Homo sapiens (1400cc ) Skull Bipedalism

9. Examples: Behavioural Evolution Cooperation (e.g., food sharing, child rearing) Pair bonding Altruism

10. Homeostasis Internal balance of the body Drives Regulatory drives

11. Control System Comparator Reference input Actual input Action system Output Feedback system (closed-loop system) Response lag

12. Blood Salinity Comparator Output Eat peanuts! Action System Actual input Eat more peanuts! Drink water! Reference input

13. Reflexes Stereotypic movement patterns Reliably elicited by appropriate stimulus Survival benefit

14. Example: Grasping in Infants Humans, other primates

15. Example: Eyeblink Stimulus (e.g., airpuff) Eyelid closes

16. Example: Limb Retraction Sharp rock, hot surface, etc. Fast muscle contraction Pulls limb away

17. Reflexes Rapid response Simple neural pathways Sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron

18. Reflex Arc muscle sensory neuron interneuron motor neuron ?

19. Tropisms Movement, or change in direction, of the entire animal Jacque Loeb –Geotropism

20. Geotropism

21. Types of Tropisms Kinesis –Movement random with respect to stimulus Taxis –Non-random (directed) movement with respect to stimulus

22. heat source testing arena Kinesis Movement in a random direction hot cool mediumfast slow

23. Taxis Movement that bears some relationship to the location of a stimulus testing arena heat source hot cool

24. The Models Kinesis –Random turn –Set move length –No more than 180° turn –Movement speed variable (fast, medium, slow) Taxis –Turn so as to move away from heat –Set move length –No more than 180° turn –Movement speed fixed

25. Modal (Fixed) Action Patterns Originally “fixed”; variable to some degree Species specific, often state dependent Sign stimulus (“releaser”) activates a dedicated neural system To completion in sequence

26. Graylag Goose Rolls displaced egg near its nest back with beak Sign stimulus: displaced egg Remove egg during sequence http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vUNZv-ByPkUhttp://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vUNZv-ByPkU www.cerebromente.org.br/n09/fastfacts/comportold_I.htm

27. Stickleback Bruno Cavignaux / Biosphoto www.arkive.org/three-spined-stickleback/ gasterosteus-aculeatus-aculeatus/image-A23078.html http://www.mylot.com/w/image/1967361.aspx

28. Supernormal Stimuli Extreme version of sign stimulus Size, colouration, etc. Preference sometimes detrimental

29. Beetles on the Bottle Gwynne & Rentz (1983) Male Jewel beetles (Julodimorpha bakewelli) Colour and reflection of bumps on bottle as supernormal stimuli for female beetle

30. General Behaviour Traits Behavioural traits strongly influenced by genes Not the same as Modal Action Patterns –GBTs more plastic than MAPs –No single sign stimulus e.g., Species Specific Defense Reactions –Freeze, flee, fight –Mouse vs. bear

31. Environmental Interaction Not strictly genetically controlled Susceptible to conditioning e.g., twin studies

32. Behavioural Influence Selective breeding studies Artificial or natural selection e.g., morphine addiction in rats e.g., Silver foxes http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ot2www 2CF3Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ot2www 2CF3Y

33. Habituation and Sensitization Simplest form of Learning

34. Habituation and Sensitization Changes reflex response Learning without new axons/synapses Temporary effect at existing synapse –E.g., less neurotransmitter released from axon terminal

35. Habituation Decease in a response following repeated stimulus presentation Note: note everything that results in a decrease in response is habituation Sensitization Increase in a response following repeated stimulus presentation

36. Example: Banana Slug Habituation Eyestalk retraction Touch back Record time until eyestalks are fully re- extended

37. Results Slug eyestalk re-extension times –Trial 1: 23 sec –Trial 2: 12 sec –Trial 3: 10 sec –Trial 4: 7 sec –Trial 5: 3 sec –Trial 6: 1 sec 25 12.5 Trial 123456 Time (sec.)

38. Example: Rat Sensitization 1. Gentle touch, no response 2. Painful shock, flinch 3. Gentle touch, flinch

39. HabituationSensitization GeneralizationLessMore Length of effectLongerShorter Rate of relearning Quicker than initially Habituation and Sensitization Generalization: treat other stimuli like learned stimuli Discrimination: distinguish other stimuli from learned stimuli

40. Spontaneous Recovery Post habituation or sensitization Return to original level of responding Due to passage of time

41. Limits of Natural Selection Adaptation relatively slow Generally not helpful during a lifetime Select best adapted individuals from each generation Evolutionary time lag Variation within species

42. Learning: Evolved Modifiability Selective pressure Learning –Going beyond innate behaviour patterns All animals Evolutionarily selected for Allows individuals to adapt to rapid environmental change

43. Nature and Nurture Long debate British Empiricists vs. Nativists Not “either/or,” but “both” Genes and environment constantly interact Biology and experience both shape an organism’s behaviour patterns

44. The Ability to Learn A by-product of both heredity and experience e.g., rats reared in complex environments e.g., educational aids for infants