1. P ERSUASION AND T HE ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING Because Aristotle Knew What He Was Talking About

2. P ERSUASION Process of changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors Ethos, Pathos, and Logos Ethos— credibility Pathos— emotional appeal Logos— logical appeal (reasoning & evidence) People will be persuaded by one or more of these reasons

3. Q UALITIES OF P OSITIVE E THOS Credibility—whether you are qualified to speak on a given topic Competence Character Establish Credibility Competence—informed, skilled, knowledgeable Trustworthiness—believable and honest Dynamism—energy (charisma) Enhance Credibility Initial Derived Terminal

4. S TRENGTHEN Y OUR E THOS Each time you speak, people form impressions of you Share audience concerns Cite reputable experts Use personal experience Be clear and interesting Consider different points of view Deliver with dynamism

5. A PPEALING TO E MOTIONS ( PATHOS ) Fundamental to motivating an audience Never a substitute for logical arguments and available evidence Dimensions of emotion = pleasure, arousal, power Be ethical when using emotion. Use: Concrete examples Emotion-arousing words Visual images to evoke emotion Appropriate metaphors and similes Appropriate fear appeals Appeal to several emotions; hope, pride, courage, etc.

6. E THICAL C ONSIDERATIONS Avoid deception and manipulation Recognize and respect power of emotions Avoid distraction and disorientation Don’t overwhelm audience Use emotional appeals to supplement and complement well-reasoned arguments

7. M ORE E THICAL C ONSIDERATIONS Have ethical goals and use ethical means Ethical dilemmas Professional obligations can create A conflict of responsibilities A choice between “the lesser of two evils” Circumstances can create Situations dictate a change Does the end justify the means?

8. E THICAL G UIDELINES Are your purposes consistent w/ prevailing norms? Would you violate your own ethics by speaking out? Are you willing to stick to your ethical principles? What are the ethical standards? Your basic ethical obligations Tell the truth Take responsibility Avoid plagiarism(!!!)

9. T HE E THICAL S PEAKER Is not expected to be perfectly objective Provides good arguments, sound reasoning and solid evidence Remains open to new information Is well informed and fully prepared Contributes useful presentations

10. B UILDING AN A RGUMENT ( LOGOS ) Use logic and evidence to persuade Logic—System of rules for making inferences Reasoning—Process of drawing conclusions from evidence Evidence—Facts, examples, statistics, expert opinions Claims Debatable assertion by speaker Takes a side on an issue and invites debate A statement with which you want your audience to agree Types of Claims Fact Value Policy

11. T YPES OF C LAIMS

12. F ACT C LAIMS Claims about the truth or falsity of an assertion Involve existence, scope or causality Questions about past / present Predictions of the future Require empirical proof: real examples, statistics, and expert testimony Example: To persuade my audience that William Shakespeare did not write the plays attributed to him.

13. V ALUE C LAIMS Claims about the worth, rightness, and morality of an idea or action Involve what we consider good or bad, right or wrong Focus on what we believe to be appropriate, legal, ethical or moral Determine how we should evaluate facts, ideas or actions Example: To persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation.

14. P OLICY C LAIM Claim about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken Determine our future actions Deal with how to solve problems Evaluate options by costs, feasibility, advantages and disadvantages “Should” is either stated or implied Two kinds of policy claims: 1. Speeches to gain passive agreement 2. Speeches to gain immediate action

15. S PEECHES TO G AIN P ASSIVE A GREEMENT Goal is to convince audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of it. Example: To persuade my audience that there should be stricter safety standards on amusement park rides. To persuade my audience that the age for full driving privileges should be raised to 18.

16. S PEECHES TO G AIN I MMEDIATE A CTION Goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy Examples: To persuade my audience to vote in the next presidential election. (i.e. everyone old enough to vote should vote) To persuade my audience to become literacy tutors. (i.e. you should be a literacy tutor)

17. A NALYZING P OLICY C LAIMS 1. Need — you must establish that there is a need for change Burden of Proof —your obligation to prove that change is necessary 2. Plan—you must have a plan to solve the problem 3. Practicality — Does your solution solve the problem? Does it create new problems? Has this plan worked elsewhere? How has this plan been implemented elsewhere?

18. R EASONABLE A RGUMENTS Qualified at a level appropriate to the strength of the reasoning and evidence behind it Words that indicate our level of confidence Examples: “possibly”, “probably”, or “beyond any doubt” Recognize reservations Exceptions to our claim, or conditions under which we no longer hold the claim “Unless” Evidence Consider the criteria or standards that support your evaluation Reflect on the rules, principles or standards we employ in making judgments Tests: quality, relevancy, amount

19. F ORMS OF R EASONING

20. I NDUCTIVE R EASONING Moves from a set of specific examples to a general conclusion A number of representative examples makes the case Claims must be carefully qualified Reservations may be needed Can be strengthened with evidence Example Fact 1: My physical education course last term was easy Fact 2: My roommate’s physical education course was easy Fact 3: My brother’s physical education course was easy Conclusion: Physical education courses are easy

21. D EDUCTIVE R EASONING Draws a conclusion about a specific case based on generally accepted premise Usually we reason from qualified premises to probable conclusions Premises are often already accepted by audience Speaker may assume the audience will fill in the missing premise Syllogism is a classic example Example 1. The U.S. Constitution guarantees all U.S. citizens the right to vote 2. Women are U.S. citizens 3. Therefore, the U.S. Constitution guarantees women the right to vote

22. C AUSAL R EASONING From effect to cause, or cause to effect At the heart of scientific investigation Rarely simple Reputable sources are important Qualified due to complexity Can be difficult to claim causation Example Drinking soda will make you fat Caution: post hoc, ergo propter hoc - "after this, therefore because of this") post hoc, ergo propter hoc Example :“Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X."

23. A NALOGICAL R EASONING What is true in one case will be true in another Literal analogy compares similar examples Figurative analogy is similar to metaphor; rarely proves anything Should be qualified Example If you’re good at racquetball, you’ll be good at Ping- Pong

24. O RGANIZATIONAL P ATTERNS

25. C HRONOLOGICAL Good for step-by-step process or historical events Begin with a specific point in time, move ahead or back from there The principle of recency—the event discussed last is the one that the audience will remember best

26. S PATIAL Organizes according to space or physical relationship Arranges ideas according to their location and direction Can progress up or down, east or west, forward or backward Ideas must be developed in logical order

27. C ATEGORICAL Arrange by distinct topics Addresses types forms qualities aspects Can organize in a variety of ways Recency—highlights one point more than the others Primacy—puts the most important or convincing point first Complexity—moves from simple to complex

28. B UILDING TO A C LIMAX Simple to difficult, least to most, neutral to intense Effective for gaining audience agreement or action Can also reverse the pattern, from most to least

29. C AUSE & E FFECT Moves from cause to effect, or effect to cause Good to explain how an event unfolded Chronology does not equal cause Guard against over-simplification Must be able to demonstrate that one event actually caused something else to occur

30. P ROBLEM -S OLUTION Typically used in persuasive speaking Speaker usually proposes a best solution Reflective Thinking Sequence Causes & extent of problem? Effects of problem? Criteria by which solutions should be judged? Possible solutions (strengths & weaknesses) Best solution? Put into effect how? Definition & limits of problems

31. M OTIVATED S EQUENCE 1. Attention— get listeners’ attention 2. Need— establish problem or issue and convince audience of the need for change; demonstrate that this need affects audience directly 3. Satisfaction— identify how your plan will satisfy the need and explain solution 4. Visualization— use positive visualization to explain how great life will be after your solution is implemented, or use negative visualization to show how terrible life will be if it is not 5. Action— tell audience the specific action(s) they must take to implement solution