1. JPN494: Japanese Language and Linguistics JPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics Phonology & Phonetics (3)

2. Phonemically (Phonologically) … Phonemes (vowels) in American English: – /i/, /u/, / ɝ /, /e ɪ /, /o ʊ /, / ɔɪ /, /a ʊ /, /a ɪ /(, /ju/) – / ɪ /, / ɛ /, /æ/, / ʊ /, / ʌ /, / ɑ /, / ɔ / – /ə/ Phonemes (vowels) in Japanese: – /a/, /i/, / ɯ /, /e/, /o/ – Some scholars consider /a:/, /i:/, / ɯ :/, /e:/, /o:/ (as in おばあさん, イースター, etc.) distinct vowel phonemes.

3. Phonemic inventory of consonants in General American English: – /p/, /t/, /k/; /b/, /d/, /g/ – /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ – /f/, /θ/, /s/; /v/, /ð/, /z/ – / ʧ /, / ʤ / – /l/, /r/; /w/, /j/

4. Phonemic inventory of consonants in Japanese There are opposing ideas, in particular in relation to the treatment of 拗音 ( ようおん ) – 直音 ( ちょくおん ): カ・キ・ク・ケ・コ – 拗音 ( ようおん ): キャ・キュ・キョ To identify the set of phonemes in a language is not a trivial matter. The “ground rules” are: 1. To minimize the number of phonemes 2. To minimize the number of phonological rules

5. Option 1 (assumed by Tsujimura) Step 1 Each 行 ( ぎょう ) in 50 音図, except for ア行, corresponds to one consonant. ( 拗音 ’s and “ ん ”, ” っ ”, “ ー ” are put aside) カ・ガ・サ・ザ・タ・ダ・ナ・ハ・パ・バ・ マ・ヤ・ラ・ワ /k/, /g/, /s/, /z/ ([z], [ ʣ ]), /t/, /d/, /n/, /h/, /p/, /b/, /m/, /j/, /r/ ([ ɾ ], [l], [r]), /w/

6. Step 2 The following sounds are realized by phonological rules (there is good evidence to believe that such phonological rules exist) – [ ʃ ] in シ (an allophone of /s/) – [ ʤ ] in ジ (an allophone of /z/) – [ ʧ ] in チ, [ ʦ ] in ツ (allophones of /t/) – [ç] in ヒ, [ ɸ ] in フ (allophones of /h/)

7. Step 3 additional phonemes for 拗音 ’s /k j /, /g j /, /n j /, /m j /, /r j / (class 1; palatalized consonants) – 客 ( きゃく ), 急 ( きゅう ), 今日 ( きょう ) – 逆 ( ぎゃく ), 牛丼 ( ぎゅうどん ), 業界 ( ぎょうかい ) – 蒟蒻 ( こんにゃく ), 入院 ( にゅういん ), 女房 ( にょうぼう ) – ミャンマー, ミュージック, 茗荷 ( みょうが ) – 略す ( りゃくす ), 竜 ( りゅう ), 旅館 ( りょかん )

8. / ʧ /, / ʦ /, / ʃ /, / ʤ /, /ç/, / ɸ / (class 2) – 茶 ( ちゃ ), 注意 ( ちゅうい ), チェス, 調子 ( ちょうし ) – おとっつぁん, ツァーリ, カンツォーネ – 車庫 ( しゃこ ), 週末 ( しゅうまつ ), シェーク, 商売 ( しょうば い ) – じゃこ, 十 ( じゅう ), ジェスチャー, 女性 ( じょせい ) – 百 ( ひゃく ), 日向 ( ひゅうが ), 氷河 ( ひょうが ) – ファイル, フィン, フェリー, フォーク [ ʧ ] in チ is a phonetic realization of /t/, while [ ʧ ] in チャ, チュ, チェ, チョ is a phonetic realization of / ʧ / Similarly for / ʦ /, / ʃ /, / ʤ /, /ç/, / ɸ /

9. Option 1’ Consonants in キ・ギ・ニ・ミ・リ too are phonetically palatalized (like those in キャ・ ギャ・ニャ・ミャ・リャ, etc.). – 木々 ( きぎ ) [k j ig j i] – 二ミリ ( にみり ) [n j im j ir j i] ([ ɲ im j ir j i]) In other words, [k j ], [g j ], [n j ] ([ ɲ ]), [m j ], [r j ] can be either (i) phonetic realizations of /k/, /g/, /n/, /m/, /r/ or (ii) phonetic realizations of /k j /, /g j /, /n j / (/ ɲ /), /m j /, /r j /

10. Option 2 (Step 1 and Step 2 are the same as before) Step 3 拗音 ’s have phonemic representations of the form: /CjV/, where – C ∈ {k, g, s, z, t, d, n, h, p, b, m, r} – V ∈ {a, ɯ, (e,) o}) – e.g. 客 /kjak ɯ /

11. Additional rule: – CjV → C j V (where C j is the palatalized counterpart of C) – kja → k j a Modification of an existing rule: – s → ʃ / ___ i or j sja → ʃ ja – C [+p] jV → C [+p] V (where C [+p] is a palatal or alveo-palatal consonant) ʃ ja → ʃ a – (similarly: t → ʧ, d → ʤ, h → ç) The number of phonemes can be largely reduced; namely, we can dispense with /k j /, /g j /, /n j /, /m j /, /r j /, / ʃ /, / ʧ /, / ʤ /, /ç/.

12. / ʦ / and / ɸ / are still needed. / ɸ / can, however, re-analyzed as /hw/: – hwV → ɸ V (e.g. hwa → ɸ a)

13. Special phonemes /R/ (corresponds to “ ー ”) /Q/ (corresponds to “ っ ”/“ ッ ”) /N/(corresponds to “ ん ”/ “ ン ”)

14. /R/ ( 引く音 ): realized as lengthening of the preceding vowel: – ラーメン /raRmeN/ ⇒ [ ɾ a:me ɴ ] – お母さん ( おかあさん ) /okaRsaN/ ⇒ [oka:sa ɴ ] – お爺さん ( おじいさん ) /oziRsaN/ ⇒ [o ʣ i:sa ɴ ] – 空気 ( くうき ) /k ɯ Rki/ ⇒ [k ɯ :k j i] – お姉さん ( おねえさん ) /oneRsaN/ ⇒ [one:sa ɴ ] – 名刺 ( めいし ) /meRsi/ ⇒ [me: ʃ i] – 狼 ( おおかみ ) /oRkami/ ⇒ [o:kam j i] – 砂糖 ( さとう ) /satoR/ ⇒ [sato:]

15. /Q/ ( つまる音 ): realized as lengthening of the following consonant: – sustained closure 一杯 ( いっぱい ) /iQpai/ ⇒ [ippai] 一体 ( いったい ) /iQtai/ ⇒ [ittai] 一回 ( いっかい ) /iQkai/ ⇒ [ikkai] ブッダ /b ɯ Qda/ ⇒ [b ɯ dda] バッグ /baQg ɯ / ⇒ [baggu] エッジ /eQzi/ ⇒ [ed ʣ i] – sustained stricture 必死 ( ひっし ) /hiQsi/ ⇒ [çi ʃʃ i]

16. /N/ ( はねる音 ; 撥音 ( はつおん )): realized in various ways depending on what sound follows it: – uvular nasal 本 ( ほん ) /hoN/ ⇒ [ho ɴ ] ( ～ [hoŋ]) – coarticulatory nasals 散歩 ( さんぽ ) /saNpo/ ⇒ [sampo] 引退 ( いんたい ) /iNtai/ ⇒ [intai] 天気 ( てんき ) /teNki/ ⇒ [teŋki] こんにちは /koNnitiwa/ ⇒ [kon j n j i ʧ iwa] – nasailized vowels 新鋭 ( しんえい ) /siNei/ ⇒ [ ʃ iẽei] ( ～ [ ʃ i ɴ ei]) 恋愛 ( れんあい ) /reNai/ ⇒ [ ɾ eãai] ( ～ [ ɾ e ɴ ai])

17. Phonemes in Japanese (Summary) Option 1 – /a/, /i/, / ɯ /, /e/, /o/ – /p/, /t/, /k/; /p j /, / ʧ /, /k j / – /b/, /d/, /g/; /b j /, / ʤ /, /g j / – /m/, /n/; /m j /, /n j / – /s/, /h/, / ɸ /; / ʃ /, /ç/ – /z/; / ʒ / – (/ ʦ /) – /r/ – /j/, /w/ – /N/, /Q/, /R/

18. Phonemes in Japanese (Summary) Option 2 – /a/, /i/, / ɯ /, /e/, /o/ – /p/, /t/, /k/ – /b/, /d/, /g/ – /m/, /n/ – /s/, /h/(, / ɸ /) – /z/ – (/ ʦ /) – /r/ – /j/, /w/ – /N/, /Q/, /R/

19. Syllables and moras Adjacent phones can form a group. The most well-known unit of grouping is “syllable”. A syllable consists of: – onset: 0, 1, or more consonant – nucleus: 1 vowel (mono-, bi-, or tri- phthongal) – coda: 0, 1, or more consonant

20. strikes [st ɹ a ɪ ks] – onset: [st ɹ ] – Nucleus: [a ɪ ] – coda: [ks] owe [o ʊ ] – onset: φ – nucleus: [o ʊ ] – coda: φ

21. Phonotactics Possible and impossible syllables (phonotactics) – In English, the sequence of [s] and [t] (in the onset) is possible, while it is not in Japanese. – In English, sequences like [ts], [ ɹ t], etc. are not allowed in the onset (star vs. tsar; tree vs. rtee). As a ground rule, sonority of sounds must increase as they approach to the nucleus. – stops < fricatives < nasals < approximants (< vowels)

22. Syllables in Japanese (Phonologically) onset (option 1): {φ, C} onset (option 2): {φ, C (other than /j/, /w/)} + {φ, /j/, /w/} nucleus: {V} + {φ, V, /R/} coda: {φ, /N/, /Q/} /V/, /VV/, /CV/, /CjV/, /CjVR/, …

23. Syllables in Japanese (Phonetically) onset: {φ, C} nucleus: {V, VV, V:} coda: {φ, C} C in the coda of a word-final syllable must be a nasal: – 胃 ( い ), イー, 木 ( き ), キー, トン, トーン – ひっ. し, げっ. ぷ

24. 胃 ( い )/V/ [V] 藍 ( あい )/VV/[VV] イー /VR/ [V:] 木 ( き ) /CV/[CV] キー /CVR/[CV:] トン /CVN/[CVC] トーン /CVRN/[CV:C] ひっ. し /CVQ. CV/[CVC.CV] げっ. ぷ /CVQ. CV/[CVC.CV]

25. Moras “Mora” is a unit larger than phone, but smaller than syllable. A syllable consists of one or more mora. A syllable with more moras is said to be heavy(er). E.g., beat is heavier than bit.

26. Japanese is said to be a mora-timed language (Each mora has equal length). English: stress-timed language (A stressed syllable occurs periodically). Spanish: syllable-timed language (Each syllable has equal length).

27. Each upper case kana, “ ー ”, and “ っ ” corresponds to one mora: – 胃 ( い ): one syllable, one mora – 序 ( じょ ): one syllable, one mora – 貝 ( かい ): one syllable, two moras – キー : one syllable, two moras – 謝意 ( しゃい ): one syllable, two moras – 章 ( しょう ): one syllable, two moras – 案 ( あん ): one syllable, two moras – 作家 ( さっか ): two syllables, three moras – サッカー : two syllables, four moras

28. Haiku 5-7-5 ( ご・しち・ご ): – こがらしや 海に夕日を 吹き落とす ( 夏目漱石 ) – 涼風 ( すずかぜ ) の 曲がりくねって 来たりけり ( 小林一茶 ) 字余り : – すずめの子 そこのけそこのけ お馬が通る ( 小林一茶 ) – 旅に病 ( や ) んで 夢は枯 ( か ) れ野を かけめぐる ( 松尾芭蕉 )