1. February 16 th, 2011 Brittanica.com

2. Mangrove Swamps Also known as tidal forests Have received inadequate attention until recent years

3. Mangroves Worldwide distribution Between 25 0 North and 25 0 South latitude 75% of coastline in this area has mangroves 25% of all Caribbean coastline has mangroves Mangrove Distribution

4. Mangrove and Reef Distribution Mangrove DistributionCoral Reef Distribution

5. Environmental Conditions Mangroves are rooted in anoxic sediment Belowground tissue is subjected to long periods of anaerobic conditions Slows nutrient uptake Allows for accumulation of toxins Mangrove tissue is also exposed to decomposing bacteria

6. Environmental Conditions Few plant species grow in highly saline environments Those that can are called halophytes Less than 2% of all plant species are halophytes Only 110 sp. of mangroves in the world Mangroves transpire less than other plants, must find a way to conserve water Vadose layer of soil

7. Adaptations to environment Anoxic sediment Broad roots, shallow depth Root extensions that project into the air Root strategies Root props Knee roots Finer roots

8. Adaptations to the environment Salt excluders Ultrafiltration systems Store Na+ in vacuoles Salt excreters Salt glands

9. Zonation Vertical zonation in mangrove species distribution Red- Extend into water Black- Inundated at high tide White- Above high tide line

10. Red Mangroves Rhizophora mangle Most swamps are dominated by it Extend into water Able to grow roots completely submerged in seawater Extensive prop root system Salt excluder - membrane at root surface Leaves with waxy coating Promotes siltation by slowing wave action Promotes island building

11. Red Mangroves

12. Black Mangroves Avicennia germinans In areas not underwater all of the time, only during high tides Soil is very saline and low in oxygen Have vertical pneumatophores in root system Extend above ground Allows them to get oxygen from air Secrete excess salt from leaf glands as crystals Waxy coating

13. Black Mangroves

14. White Mangrove Laguncularia racemosa Found only above high tides Soil is very muddy and water-logged or can be sandy Can not stand high moisture levels (like the first two species) Tolerant of high levels of salt Salinity usually increases towards shore Salt excretion via leaf glands

15. White mangroves

16. Zonation in Mangrove Swamps in Jamaica (Warner 1968) Five Zones: 1. Fringe Zone 5% of total swamp In water Pure stands of red mangrove 2. Red Mangrove Zone 20-25% of swamp Closed growth, tangled mesh of prop roots Pure stands of red mangrove 3. Transitional Red and Black Zone 5-10% of swamp Dominated by red mangrove, but with black mangrove present

17. Zonation cont. 4. Mixed Red, Black and White Mangrove Zone 40% of swamp Less than half are red mangrove The rest are black and white mangroves 5. Back Zone 15% of swamp Dominated by black and white mangroves

18. Functions Important ecological bridge between land and sea Provide protection of land during storms

19. Functions Important ecological bridge between land and sea Provide protection of land during storms Trap nutrients to help productivity of surrounding sea Trap sediments that would kill coral populations

20. Functions Important ecological bridge between land and sea Provide protection of land during storms Trap nutrients to help productivity of surrounding sea Trap sediments that would kill coral populations Provides nursery areas for many juvenile reef fishes

21. Animals of the Mangrove Community Prop roots of red mangroves provide substrate for benthic organisms (algae, sponges, hydroids, tunicates) Mangrove swamps provide critical protected nursery areas for fishes, crustaceans, and shellfish.

23. Impacts of Mangroves as Nurseries Very few reef species dependent on mangroves Some are dependent: Goliath grouper, Rainbow parrotfish Presence of nearby mangroves does not impact total reef species diversity Total fish biomass significantly impacted by presences of nearby mangroves (up to a 25X increase) Haemulidae Lutjanidae

24. Impacts of Mangroves as Nurseries Rainbow parrotfish- Scaridae Largest herbivore in Atlantic Ocean (over 1.2 m) Juveniles dependent on mangroves Heavily influence physical structure of coral formations Coral structure = coral community structure

25. Threats to Mangroves More than half of world’s mangroves have been eliminated Deforestation for shrimp farms Loss of invertebrate food for fishes salinization of freshwater Leads to decline in coastal fisheries Documented in Thailand Antibiotics into oceans *Current rate of mangrove destruction exceeds that of rain forests (~900 sq. mi. per year)

26. Threats to Mangroves

27. Global climate change Storms cause seawater to enter freshwater systems Flooding Hypoxia Salt-stress Loss of plant biodiversity Less protection from hurricanes

28. Salt Marshes Also known as tidal marshes, temperate equivalent of mangrove forests Associated with estuaries Common along Atlantic and Gulf coasts

29. Salt Marshes Muddy bottom held together by roots of marsh plants Includes creeks and mudflats Experience extreme salinity, temperature changes, and tides

31. Salt Marshes- Zonation Similar to mangroves Varies due to height relative to tide, geographical location, type of substrate Most common plants: Cordgrasses Stabilizes soil

33. FIG. 14.34 The aerenchymal tissue allows Spartina to exchange gases, even when surrounded by an anoxic soil. The tissue in this photograph is visible as a series of circular passageways around the periphery. (Photograph courtesy of Mark Bertness.)

34. Salt Marshes- Conservation Salt marshes are overfished for benthic inverts Trophic cascades Human dredging for development

35. Deep Water Habitat 84% ocean lies deeper than 2000 m Deep-sea bottoms are mainly sand and mud, but populations exhibit high level of patchiness Bottom currents Larval settlement Animal modification of sediment

36. Deep Water Habitat Organic matter supplied from primary producers in surface waters Only 2-7% of surface production reaches bottom of North Atlantic gyre Carnivores become less abundant

37. Adaptations to the Deep Sea Low food supply Sluggish fish, low muscle mass Low metabolic rates Predators with large mouths and stomachs Long guts Low/no light Large eyes Eye placement Gulper eel Barreleyes

38. Deep sea biodiversity Stable environment Sheer area Larger number of species relative to continental shelf bottoms Difficult to sample

39. Deep water coral mounds From 30 to 1000+ m deep Hard coral (without zooxanthellae), sea fans, sea whips Over 2000 spp. Demersal fisheries

40. Leiopathes sp. Black coral Oldest living organisms in sea? Over 2000 years old

41. Deep sea vents Hot vents are located near areas of submarine volcanic activity Spew out sulfide-rich water

42. Deep sea vent biodiversity Large tubeworm Riftia pachyptila Bathymodiolus thermphilus Whoi.edu

43. Deep sea vent biodiversity Photosynthetic anaerobic bacteria Oxidizes S to obtain CO2 Has photosynthetic pigment that absorbs energy from geothermal radiation Taq polymerase