1. 10-1

2. Housekeeping Items
I’m still working on the mid-terms and will get them back as soon as I can. I am swamped with marking at the moment.
Today we’re going to look at forestry issues. We’re a week behind so I will try to catch us up as we have some important subjects to cover towards the end of the course.
In moving towards more ecologically responsible forms of forestry, see the profile of Tzeporah Berman on p Tzeporah has played an integral part in Greenpeace and Forest Ethics.

3. Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to
Describe the basic functional processes of trees and their role in biogeochemical cycling
Summarize the principal types of forest biomes, especially those indigenous to Canada
Describe the ecological roles and economic contributions of forests
Trace the history and scale of forest loss and identify the current drivers of deforestation
Outline the major methods of harvesting timber
Explain the fundamentals of forest management, and identify forest management agencies in Canada and internationally

4. Central Case: Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound
1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history
12,000 protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia
Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the trees are at least 150 years old
Jobs depended on the timber industry
Iisaak, meaning “respect”, became a guiding principle for forestry in the area
Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to retain a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest ecosystem

5. The Forest and the Trees
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6. The Forest and the Trees
Forests cover about 31% of Earth’s land surface
Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles

7. Trees have several basic requirements
For photosynthesis to occur
An amenable temperature
Air
Light
Soil
Water
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8. Trees have several basic requirements (cont’d)
Macronutrients – required in large amounts
Micronutrients – required in small amounts
Transpiration – water loss from leaf surface, cools the plant as well as assisting in the movement of nutrients
Water drawn up through xylem by adhesion and cohesion
Useful to plant trees in close proximity to crops to make water more accessible to crops
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9. There are three major groups of forest biomes
Boreal forest
High-latitude forest
Cold, dry climates with short growing seasons
Temperate forest (including our rainforest)
Mid-latitude forest
Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing season)
Tropical forest
Equatorial-latitude forest
Wet, tropical climate

10. Forests grade into open wooded lands
Drylands:
Shrublands = wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra)
Savannah = open area dominated by grasses with widely scattered trees
Grasslands = lands dominated by grasses and non-woody vegetation

11. Canada is a steward for much of the world’s forest
402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land is 25% of the world’s natural forest
Canada has the highest amount of forested land per capita in the world
More than 50% of Canada’s primary forest remains more or less intact

12. Canada’s forests are varied
402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land is 25% of the world’s natural forest
Forests of the north:
Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of Canada
Every province except Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island
Forests of the west:
Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, Columbia
Forests of the east:
Forest regions: Deciduous, Great-Lakes-St.Lawrence, Acadian

13. Canada’s Forest Regions (source: Global Forest Watch)

14. Horizontal structure/ storeys of the forest
Canopy – upper level of leaves, woodland area has a more open canopy

15. Forests are ecologically valuable
One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity
Structural complexity houses great biodiversity
Some animals adapted for living in canopy, others specialize on the sub-canopies
Shrubs and groundcover plants of the understory are home to still more organisms
Fallen leaves and branches called litter, house still others
Forest edge can be quite different from habitat in the forest core

16. Trees provide ecosystem services of value to people
A forest provides many ecosystem services
Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion
Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water
Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate

17. Harvesting Forest Products
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18. Forest products are economically valued
Benefits: fuel, shelter, transportation (ships), paper
Helped society achieve a high standard of living
Softwood = timber harvested from coniferous trees
Hardwood = timber harvested from deciduous trees
NTFPs = non-timber forest products such as medicinal, herbal, decorative and edible products (often undervalued in forest planning)

19. Timber is harvested by several methods
Clearcutting method – all trees in an area are cut, leaving only stumps
Most cost-efficient
Greatest impacts on forest ecosystems
Mimics natural disturbances such as fires
Enhances soil erosion
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20. Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)

21. Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut
All methods disturb habitat, except certain forms of selective logging such as practiced at Wildwood near Yellowpoint by the now-deceased Merv Wilkinson
Change forest structure and composition
Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides
See:
how_it_works.php

22. Plantation forestry has grown in North America
Reforestation = planting of trees after logging
Afforestation = planting of trees where forested cover has not existed for some time
Even-aged trees =all trees are the same age
Maximum sustainable yield = cutting trees shortly after they have gone through their fastest stage of growth, and trees often grow most quickly at intermediate ages

23. Land Conversion and Deforestation
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24. Land conversion and Deforestation
Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests
People have cleared forests for millennia
Clearing of land for farming one of the first significant human environmental impacts
Alters landscapes and ecosystems
“Pioneers Clearing the Land”
by C.W. Jeffreys

25. The growth of Canada and the U. S
The growth of Canada and the U.S. were fueled by land clearing and logging
Deforestation propelled growth throughout North America
Cleared for farming
Then wood used to fuel furnaces of industry
Principal cause of deforestation in Canada is agriculture

26. Agriculture is the major cause of conversion of forests and grasslands
Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface than forest
Principal driver of land conversion today
Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared and crops planted
Sustains only one or two seasons of planting
Soil depleted quickly
7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings to support crops or forests

27. Former rainforest (source: Wild Madagascar)

28. Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land surface
Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but have traditionally been raised by grazing on open rangelands
Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity
Poorly managed grazing impacts soil and grassland ecosystems
Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl

29. Bad practices and other pressures have led to deforestation
Deforestation has altered the landscapes and ecosystems of much or our planet
Forest can be harvested sustainably but it hasn’t always happened
Impacts are greatest in tropical areas and in dryland regions
Deforestation also adds carbon dioxide to atmosphere
Fastest rates of deforestation are in tropical rainforests of Latin America and Africa
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30. Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many developing nations
Uncut primary tropical forests still remain in many developing countries
Advanced technology has allowed the exploitation of resources faster than in the past
Often these countries impose few or no restrictions on logging
Often timber is extracted by foreign corporations
FIGURE 10.10

31. weighing the issues
Logging here or there
Imagine you are an environmental activist protesting a logging operation that is cutting old-growth trees near your hometown. If the protest is successful, the company will move to a developing country and cut its primary forest instead.
Would you still protest the logging in your hometown?
Would you pursue any other approaches?

32. Forest Management Principles
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33. Forest Management Principles
Forestry (silviculture) = a professional field of managing forests by balancing forests as ecosystems and as sources of wood products
Harvesting = the removal of material from the resource
Should not occur at a rate that exceeds the capability of the resource to replenish or regenerate itself

34. Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes
Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on Crown lands
Crown land used for timber and non-timber forest products
Multiple use = policy where forests were to be managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral extraction, and various other uses
wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra)

35. Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes (cont’d)
National Forest Strategy for
Ecosystem-based management
Better environmental, social, and economic sustainability of forest communities through legislation and policies
Recognizing rights of Aboriginal peoples
Diversification of markets for forest products
Better skills and knowledge of forest practitioners
Engaging Canadians in sustainability through urban forests
Support private woodlots for forest sustainability
National forest reporting system

36. Today many managers practise ecosystem-based management
Ecosystem-based management = managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processes
Carefully managing ecologically important areas
Protecting some forested areas
There is some of this going on in Clayoquot Sound
It is challenging for managers to determine how to implement this type of management
Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited

37. Adaptive management evolves and improves
Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods; originated by C.S. (‘Buzz’) Holling
Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed
A fusion of science and management
Time-consuming and complicated
A guiding principle for forest management in Canada
West Arm Demonstration Forest Experiments
Donna Creek Biodiversity Project
Grizzly Bear Habitat Project

38. Fire is a natural phenomenon in forests
Many ecosystems depend on fire
Ecosystems dependent of fire are adversely affected by its suppression
Ground fires = the litter layer itself burns, as opposed to crown fires
Crown fires = the upper tree canopy is ignited
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39. Fire policy has stirred controversy
For over 100 years, all forest fires were suppressed
But many ecosystems depend on fires
Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires
Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk

40. Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)
Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions
Effective
May get out of control
Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference

41. Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)
Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance
Seems logical, but is really destructive
Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals
Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage

42. weighing the issues
How to handle fire?
A century of fire suppression has left vast swaths of forested lands in danger of catastrophic wildfires. Yet we will probably never have adequate resources to conduct careful prescribed burning over all these lands.
Can you suggest any solutions to help protect people’s homes near forests while improving the ecological condition of some forested lands?
Do you think people should be allowed to develop homes in fire- prone areas?

43. Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards
Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber
As a result of environmental campaigns and negotiations, companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood
This encourages better logging practices

44. Conclusion
Forests and other terrestrial biomes provide crucial ecosystem services that have economic value as well
Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid overexploitation and overharvesting
There are federal and regional agencies to oversee and manage publicly held land and natural resources
Resource management policies consider sustained yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation, wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity
Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas and other reserves

45. QUESTION: Review
If an area is managed for Maximum Sustained Yield, and the area can support 100 organisms, how many organisms will be allowed to remain in the area?
a) 100
b) 75
c) 50
d) 25
Answer: c

46. QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is not part of the ecological value of forests?
a) Erosion prevention
b) Decreased flooding
c) Carbon storage
d) Climate moderation
e) All of the above are values of forests
Answer: e

47. QUESTION: Review
Which of the following statement regarding forest management is false?
a) Deforestation in Canada has occurred for centuries
b) Timber companies move on after an area is deforested
c) Tropical countries have lost the majority of forests so timber companies won’t be going there
d) Governments in developing countries help logging companies at the expense of native people
Answer: c

48. QUESTION: Review Which agency preserves timber on Crown lands?
a) Canadian Wildlife Service
b) Canadian Forest Service
c) Bureau of Land Management
d) Ministry of Forests and Range
Answer: b

49. QUESTION: Review Tree harvesting by clear-cutting….
a) Cuts all trees in an area, leaving only stumps
b) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to produce seeds
c) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to shelter seedlings
d) Produces uneven-aged tree stands
Answer: a

50. QUESTION: Review
The National Forest Strategies for included all of the following, except:
a) Ecosystem-based management
b) Diversification of markets for forest products
c) Increased harvesting under times of economic stress
d) Recognizing legal rights of Aboriginal peoples
Answer: c

51. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
What is the largest cause of deforestation in Canada today?
Development
Agriculture
Hydroelectricity
Forest roads
Answer: b