1. R. V. Routh, 1941. The diffusion of English culture outside England
R.V. Routh, The diffusion of English culture outside England. A problem of post-war reconstruction. Cambridge University Press.
A new career service is needed, for gentlemen teachers of English with equivalent status to ‘the Civil Service, Army, Bar, or Church’, an ‘army of linguistic missionaries’ a ‘central office in London, from which teachers radiate all over the world’. The new service must ‘lay the foundations of a world-language and culture based on our own’. mea culpa

3. Linguistic imperialism
interlocks with imperialism in culture, education, media, communication, economy, politics, military, …
exploitation, injustice, inequality, and hierarchy
structural: material resources, infrastructure, …
ideological: beliefs, attitudes, imagery
hegemonic: internalised as normal and ’natural’
unequal rights for speakers of different languages
subtractive, consolidating some languages at the expense of others
a form of linguicism (cf. sexism, racism)
contested and resisted.

4. Examples Suppressing regional languages (Welsh, Kurdish, …)
Colonial education promoting European languages and neglecting local languages
World Bank, British Council, Francophonie policies funding European languages only in ’Third World’, post-colonial countries
Western models of education being seen as universally relevant, as culturally ’neutral’
English as a ’lingua franca’ being fraudulently marketed as ensuring equality in communication
Monolingual native speakers of English posing as experts on language learning.

5. Professional fallacies in British ’English Language Teaching’, ESL
the monolingual fallacy
the native speaker fallacy
the early start fallacy
the maximum exposure fallacy
the subtractive fallacy.
Central to the global US-UK ELT and TESOL business, World Bank activities, etc.
Phillipson, Linguistic imperialism, chapter 7, (Oxford UP, 1992, Shanghai, and Delhi)

6. Educational Testing Services Princeton, NJ
As ETS's wholly-owned subsidiary, ETS Global BV is structured to bring ETS's expertise and experience with tests, assessments, and related services to educational and business communities around the world. ETS Global BV now has subsidiaries in Europe and Canada, and it will be expanding into other countries and regions as well.
Our subsidiaries offer a full range of ETS products, services and learning solutions, including
English language learning products and services
Training and technical assistance
Design, development and delivery of large-scale assessments
Test design and delivery.
Our global mission goes far beyond testing. Our products and services enable opportunity worldwide by measuring knowledge and skills, promoting learning and performance, and supporting education and professional development for all people worldwide.

7. Examples of ongoing processes of linguistic imperialism: the global English project
Elite formation in corporate globalisation
Marketing policies in post-communist world
‘English-medium’ higher education
University commodification: universities in ‘English-speaking’ countries establish subsidiaries in Asia, Middle East; and at home become dependent on income from ‘foreign’ students
European Union advocacy of increased multilingualism is contradicted by many of their own practices and by the Bologna process

8. More examples of ongoing processes that consolidate the product English
Academic productivity increasingly measured by bibliometric quantification that is supplanting quality, and restricting academic freedom.
The dominance of publishing in English is restricting publishing in other languages.
In European schools and universities, French, German, the Slavic languages, etc are studied less as foreign languages.
UK-USA language policy scholars argue that the expansion of English, the English language product serves all equally well.

9. From linguistic imperialism to linguistic neoimperialism
economic, financial and educational McDonaldization
military force: English for ‘peace-keeping’
a neoimperial world order largely constituted through English builds on English linguistic capital accumulation and the dispossession of other types of linguistic capital
contested and resisted
English serving anti-imperial purposes
EU language policy recommendations
Nordic governments advocate ‘parallel competence’
Minority language rights & linguistic human rights
Critical scholarship: English as project/processes/product
China
International schools?

10. Whether linguistic imperialism is occurring in any given context can be investigated empirically
See on the handout
section A, page 3, True or False
Four statements that exemplify the global English project
section D, page 4
the nine questions on constituent elements of linguistic imperialism for exploration.
Exemplification and a historical perspective follow

12. Monolingualism in the British Isles (Geraint Jenkins, A concise history of Wales)
The 1536 Act of Union with Wales entailed subordination to the
‘rights, laws, customs and speech of England... Since the English – whether government officials, religious reformers or moralists – presumed superior wisdom in matters associated with “civility” and “politeness”, it was thought prudent to ensure that a monoglot Welsh people living in “rude” and “dark” corners of the land should become familiar with the language and mores of the “civilising” English world’.
The Welsh language survived because a 1563 Act decided that the Bible should be translated into Welsh. This played a decisive role in Christianising Wales and spreading literacy. Over 2,600 books were published in Welsh in the eighteenth century, whereas in Ireland and Scotland, Protestantism was propagated in English and the imposition of English was more thorough: ‘only 70 titles were published in the Scottish Gaelic language before 1800’.
(cited Jenkins 2007: 132

13. UK - internal colonisation Matthew Arnold His Majesty’s Inspector of Schools, 1853
Whatever encouragement individuals may think it desirable to give to the preservation of the Welsh language on grounds of philological or antiquarian interest, it must be the desire of a government to render its dominions, as far as possible, homogeneous, and to break down barriers to the freest intercourse between the different parts of them. Sooner or later, the difference of language between Wales and England will probably be effaced, as has happened with the difference of language between Cornwall and the rest of England.

14. Antoine de Rivarol 1783 Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française
le français, ayant reçu des impressions de tous les peuples de l'Europe, a placé le goût dans les opinions modérées, et ses livres composent la bibliothèque du genre humain.
Ce qui n’est pas clair n’est pas français. Ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin.
French, by absorbing input from all of Europe’s peoples, privileges taste through temperate opinions, and its books comprise the library of humanity. Whatever is unclear is not French; whatever is unclear is just English, Italian, Greek or Latin.

15. Rivarol’s legacy: Yves Marek, counsellor to Jacques Toubon, 1996, cited in Phillipson 2003, English-only Europe?...
Ce qui n’est pas clair n’est pas français. Ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin.
That which is not clear is not French; that which is not clear is just English, Italian, Greek or Latin.
There is no demand in France for the linguistic rights of so-called minorities. Since we have no minorities we avoid the very idea of discrimination between so-called minorities. […] Our principles are confirmed at the level of the European Union.

16. Contrast Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Weltliteratur = texts in all languages enrich humanity and the individual with the Anglo-American World English project, Global English, = global linguistic (neo)imperialism
Wer fremde Sprachen nicht kennt, weiß nichts von seiner eigenen... Wer Englisch kennt, braucht nichts von anderen Sprachen.
Those who know no foreign languages know nothing of their own. Those who know English needn’t bother with other languages.

17. The USA: an empire, articulated since 1786
From the time of the USA declaring its independence, it has seen itself as a model for the world, with a divine mission to impose its values. George Washington saw the United States as a a ‘rising empire’, and ‘in 1786 wrote that, “However unimportant America may be considered at present … there will assuredly come a day when this country will have some weight in the scale of empires”. The address was read out in its entirety in Congress every February until the mid-1970s’.
Roberts, 2008, 68

18. Global = American manifest destiny of Anglo-Saxon culture
to spread around the world
1830
President Woodrow Wilson stated during the First World War, ‘When the war is over, we can force them [the British] to our way of thinking, because by that time they will … be financially in our hands’.
Global English is a project not a reality.

19. Winston Churchill
the British Empire and the United States who, fortunately for the progress of mankind, happen to speak the same language and very largely think the same thoughts.
House of Commons, 24 August 1941
The power to control language offers far better prizes than taking away people’s provinces or lands or grinding them down in exploitation. The empires of the future are the empires of the mind.
Harvard University, 6 September 1943

20. President Harry Truman, 1947
Imperial USA
The whole world should adopt the American system. The American system can survive in America only if it becomes a world system.
President Harry Truman, 1947
We have 50 per cent of the world’s wealth, but only 6.3 per cent of its population. In this situation, our real job in the coming period is to devise a pattern of relationships which permit us to maintain this position of disparity. To do so, we have to dispense with all sentimentality … we should cease thinking about human rights, the raising of living standards, and democratisation.
George Kennan, 1948

21. D. Armstrong in Harper’s Magazine 305, 2002
THE NEW AMERICAN CENTURY The plan is for the United States to rule the world. The overt theme is unilateralism, but it is ultimately a story of domination. It calls for the United States to maintain its military superiority and prevent new rivals from rising up to challenge it on the world stage. It calls for dominion over friends and enemies alike. It says not that the United States must be more powerful, or most powerful, but that it must be absolutely powerful.

22. David Hare, Stuff happens
They [US leaders] know we [the British government] have voluntarily surrendered our wish for an independent voice in foreign affairs. Worse, we have surrendered it to a country which is actively seeking to undermine international organisations and international law. Lacking the gun, we are to be only the mouth. The deal is this: America provides the firepower. We provide the bullshit. David Hare 2005

23. Macaulay 1835 Graddol 2010 Størrelse: 640 × 574 Type: 35KB JPG
                     
Billedets websted eg
Macaulay Graddol 2010
Størrelse:
640 × 574
Type:
35KB JPG

24. denigrate and stigmatize the local
Macaulay’s goal: ‘to create a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect’
denigrate and stigmatize the local
‘a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.’
glorify one’s own culture and language
English provides ‘ready access to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created and hoarded in the course of ninety generations’
Rationalize the asymmetrical relationship
‘India cannot have a free government. But she may have the next best thing – a firm and impartial despotism.’

25. The imperial context Implement a technocratic mission
Ignore wider economic rationales and goals
Fail to address the context of military occupation.
This was the foundation for education throughout the British colonial empire. How far are the underlying attitudes in force in ‘international’ educatiion?

26. Macaulay Graddol 2010
English is now seen as a ’basic skill’ which all children require if they are fully to participate in 21st century civil society…. It can now be used to communicate to people from almost any country in the world … We are fast moving into a world in which not to have English is to be marginalised and excluded.
We have to educate a people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother tongue. … the literature now extant … is of far greater value than all the literature which 300 years ago was extant in all the languages of the world together.
Trevelyan p. 290; Graddol, p. 10

27. denigrate and stigmatize the local Education in India is inadequate
The British Council goal (Annual Report ): to ensure that English is used in every home in India
denigrate and stigmatize the local
Education in India is inadequate
glorify one’s own culture and language
English ‘a basic skill’, necessary for all
Rationalize the asymmetrical relationship
You need British expertise to sort out Indian educational language learning problems
David Graddol, English next India, British Council 2010

28. Current myths that Graddol draws on
English as a ‘global’ language
English ‘the language of business across Europe’
Continental European universities are shifting from local languages to English
There is a global consensus on how English should be learned
The early start fallacy

29. To give millions a knowledge of English
Gandhi
To give millions a knowledge of English
is to enslave us.
Gandhi 1908 v. Winston Churchill Harvard University, 6 September 1943

31. EU, European integration: a Franco-German agenda, or …?
The process of European integration might never have come about had it not been imposed on Europe by the Americans.
Erik Holm, The European anarchy.
Europe’s hard road into high politics.
Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press
Pascaline Winand, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the United States of Europe. New York: St Martin’s Press.
2007 EU-US summit endorsed
the Transatlantic Economic Integration Plan
and the coordination of foreign policy globally

32. Diversity in what unity?
The Union shall respect cultural,
religious and linguistic diversity.
Artícle 22, The Charter of
Fondamental Rights of the European Union

33. Emotional! Explosive!
Es gibt in der EU kein emotionaleres Thema als Sprachen.
Wilhelm Schönfelder, Head of Mission for Germany at the EU,
cited in Süddeutsche Zeitung, 1 April 2005
Un sujet qui peut être qualifié d’explosif en Europe.
Pierre Lequiller, Président, réunion ouverte à l’ensemble des membres français du Parlement Européen, le 11 juin 2003.

34. Linguistic unification of Europe?
The most serious problem for the European Union is that it has so many languages, this preventing real integration and development of the Union. USA ambassador to Denmark, Mr Elton, 1997 English should be the sole official language of the European Union. Director, British Council, Germany, 26 February 2002, in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung

35. learning one lingua franca alone is not enough
EU Commission Promoting language learning and linguistic diversity: An Action Plan , 24 July 2003
learning one lingua franca alone is not enough
English alone is not enough
In non-anglophone countries recent trends to provide teaching in English may have unforeseen consequences on the vitality of the national language.

36. Fluidity in language policy in Europe
unresolved tension between linguistic nationalism (monolingualism), EU institutional multilingualism, and English becoming dominant in the EU
competing agendas at the European, state (national), and sub-statal levels
increasing grassroots and elite bi- and multilingualism, except in the UK and among the older generation in demographically large EU countries,
largely uncritical adoption of englishisation, lingua economica/americana
rhetoric of language rights, some national and supranational implementation, and advocacy of linguistic diversity.

37. The Bologna process
towards a single European higher education and research area by 2010
implements structural synchronisation,
endorses neoliberalism,
advocates privatisation of university funding,
wants accountability to the corporate world.
The communiqués from the bi-annual meetings of Ministers of Higher Education and Research never refer to language policy. Implicitly this means that ’internationalisation’ is seen as ’English-medium higher education’.

38. Nordic government policy: the parallel use of English and Nordic languages
• that it be possible to use both the languages of the Nordic countries essential to society and English as languages of science
• that the presentation of scientific results in the languages of the Nordic countries essential to society be rewarded
• that instruction in scientific technical language, especially in written form, be given in both English and the languages of the Nordic countries essential to society
• that universities, colleges, and other scientific institutions can develop long-range strategies for the choice of language, the parallel use of languages, language instruction, and translation grants within their fields …

39. University of Helsinki language policy
The language policy is in Finnish, Swedish, and English.
… University Language Policy is based on the following strategic precepts:
Languages are a resource within the academic community.
The University’s bilingual and multilingual environment and internationalisation are sources of enrichment for all and are a necessity for the international comparability of its research performance.
Language skills are a means to understanding foreign cultures and for making Finnish culture known to others. The university promotes the language proficiency of its students and staff as well as supports their knowledge of different cultures. Multilingual and multicultural communities promote creative thinking.

41. Plan Confession – and let’s not be defensive
Linguistic imperialism, approach, with examples of continuities in imperialist discourse over time
A historical perspective
The transition from colonial linguistic imperialism to contemporary linguistic neoimperialism
European Union language policy
Implications for ‘international’ schools