1. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE

2. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
EXPERIMENTS HAVE SHOWN THAT DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL
DNA HAS BEEN KNOWN ABOUT FOR OVER 100 YEARS; HOWEVER, KNOWLEDGE OF ITS ROLE AS GENETIC MATERIAL IS RELATIVELY NEW
ORIGINALLY, IT WAS THOUGHT THAT PROTEIN WAS IN CHARGE OF TRAITS (WHY DO YOU THINK THEY BELIEVED PROTEINS WERE THE ANSWER?)

3. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENT

4. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
GRIFFITH’S SETUP
INVOLVED A TYPE OF BACTERIA (STREPTOCOCCUS)
UTILIZED HEAT SHOCK TO DENATURE PROTEINS
GRIFFITH’S RESULTS
HARMLESS FORM (R FORM) WAS TURNED INTO HARMFUL FORM (S FORM) WHEN HEAT-SHOCKED “S” WAS MIXED WITH NORMAL “R”
IDENTIFIED DNA IS GENETIC CARRIER

5. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
SCIENTISTS WERE RESISTANT TO GRIFFITH’S FINDINGS
SCIENTISTS KNEW ABOUT CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOMES ARE MADE UP OF
PROTEINS (VERSATILE SUBSTANCES, 20 DIFFERENT AMINO ACIDS)
NUCLEIC ACIDS (ONLY 5 DIFFERENT NUCLEOTIDES)

6. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
HERSHEY AND CHASE EXPERIMENT

7. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
HERSHEY AND CHASE SETUP
USED T2 BACTERIOPHAGES (PHAGE = VIRUS THAT ATTACKS/EATS BACTERIA)
GREW PHAGES IN RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
SULFUR FOR PROTEIN / PHOSPHOROUS FOR DNA
TRACING RADIOACTIVITY ALLOWED THEM TO DETERMINE THE GENETIC CARRIER
RESULTS
RADIOACTIVE PHOSPHOROUS ONLY WAS PRESENT IN BACTERIAS; CONCLUSIVELY SHOWING THAT DNA (NUCLEIC ACIDS) ARE CONTROLLING TRAITS/GENETICS

8. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
NOW THE RACE WAS ON TO STUDY DNA/RNA
DNA / RNA
POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES
NUCLEOTIDE??
POLYNUCLEOTIDE??
SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE
REPEATING PATTERN OF SUGAR (PENTOSE) AND PHOSPHATE

9. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA
RNA
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
RIBOSE  ??
DEOXYRIBOSE ??
NUCLEIC  ??
NUCLEIC  ??
ACID  ??
4 TYPES OF BASES IN RNA (2 GROUPS)
4 TYPES OF BASES IN DNA (2 GROUPS)
PURINES (2 RINGS)
ADENINE / GUANINE
PYRIMIDINES (1 RING)
CYTOSINE / URACIL
CYTOSINE / THYMINE

10. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
STRUCTURE DENOTES ____________
THEREFORE LEARNING THE STRUCTURE OF DNA BECAME OF EXTREME IMPORTANCE

11. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA IS A DOUBLE STRANDED HELIX
DOUBLE HELIX  TWO STRANDS OF DNA, COILED AROUND EACH OTHER (*TWISTED LADDER*)
EXPLAINED BY WATSON AND CRICK
USED DATA FROM WILKINS AND FRANKLIN
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

12. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
WATSON AND CRICK EXPLAINED THE DOUBLE HELIX
USING DATA FROM ERWIN CHARGAFF (EXPERIMENT THAT SHOWED # OF A’S AND T’S WAS ALWAYS EQUAL, AND # OF C’S AND G’S WAS ALWAYS EQUAL)
AS WELL AS DATA THAT SHOWED DNA STRANDS WERE ALWAYS THE SAME DISTANCE APART

13. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DISCOVERED STRUCTURE SUGGESTED AN EXPLANATION OF DNA REPLICATION
SPECIFIC BASE PAIRING IS HOW DNA IS COPIED

14. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
WHILE THE CONCEPT OF REPLICATION IS SIMPLE, ACTUAL PROCESS IS COMPLEX

15. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA REPLICATION: A CLOSER LOOK
REPLICATION BEGINS AT SPECIFICS POINTS CALLED ORIGINS OF REPLICATION (O.R.’S)

16. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA REPLICATION: A CLOSER LOOK
THERE ARE MULTIPLE O.R.’S ALONG THE DNA STRAND (WHY IS THAT??)
REPLICATION BUBBLES
WHERE DNA SPLITS AND REPLICATION OCCURS IN BOTH DIRECTIONS (WHY IS THAT??)
THE STRANDS OF DNA ARE ORIENTED IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS!!!
HOW WILL THIS AFFECT REPLICATION? REMEMBER, ENZYMES HAVE SPECIFIC SHAPES!!

17. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA REPLICATION: A CLOSER LOOK
ENZYMES OF IMPORTANCE
DNA POLYMERASE
ENZYME THAT ADDS NUCLEOTIDES TO GROW DAUGHTER STRAND

18. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA REPLICATION: A CLOSER LOOK
DNA LIGASE
TIES/GLUES PIECES OF DNA TOGETHER INTO A SINGLE CONTINUOUS STRAND
DNA HELICASE
UNZIPS THE DOUBLE STRANDED HELIX
TOPOISOMERASE
RELIEVES THE PRESSURE/TENSION PLACED ON PARTS OF DNA STRAND THAT ARE STILLED COILED

19. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA REPLICATION: A CLOSER LOOK
ENSURES THAT EXACT COPIES OF DNA ARE PASSED ALONG TO ALL SOMATIC CELLS
AMAZINGLY ACCURATE; ONLY ONE MISTAKE EVERY BILLION NUCLEOTIDES PLACED!!

20. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
THE STRUCTURE OF DNA ALSO OFFERS AN EXPLANATION AS TO HOW IT CAN CONTROL YOUR TRAITS
THE DNA GENOTYPE (NUCLEOTIDE MAKEUP) IS EXPRESSED AS PROTEINS, WHICH ACTS AS THE MOLECULAR MAKEUP FOR PHENOTYPIC EXPRESSION!!

21. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
DNA  RNA  PROTEIN = PHENOTYPE
TRANSCRIPTION
PROCESS BY WHICH DNA IS CONVERTED TO RNA
TRANSLATION
PROCESS BY WHICH RNA IS CONVERTED TO PROTEIN
PROTEINS CONTROL THE PHENOTYPE (TRAITS) OF AN ORGANISM

22. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
BEADLE AND TATUM EXPERIMENT
SHOWED THAT MUTANT MOLD, DEFICIENT IN ONLY ONE GENE; COULDN’T GROW ON MEDIA THAT IT COULD GROW ON WITH NORMAL GENE
ONE GENE : ONE POLYPEPTIDE HYPOTHESIS

23. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
PRODUCES GENETIC MESSAGES IN THE FORM OF RNA
ONLY OCCURS IN THE NUCLEUS (WHY??)
SIMILAR TO REPLICATION
2 STRANDS SPLIT
BUT; ONLY STRAND SERVES AS TEMPLATE

24. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
REQUIRES THE FOLLOWING:
RNA POLYMERASE
ENZYME THAT PLACES AND LINKS NUCLEOTIDES BEING TRANSCRIBED
PROMOTER
SPECIFIC REGION OF DNA FOR RNA POLYMERASE TO BIND

25. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
OCCURS IN 3 STAGES
INITIATION
ELONGATION
TERMINATION

26. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
INITIATION
????

27. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
ELONGATION
????

28. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
TERMINATION
?????
TERMINATOR  SPECIFIC SEQUENCE ON DNA THAT SIGNALS THE RNA POLYMERASE TO DETACH

29. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
EUKARYOTIC RNA IS PROCESSED BEFORE LEAVING THE NUCLEUS
mRNA = MESSENGER RNA; CARRIES MESSAGE OF DNA TO RIBOSOME FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
IN EUKARYOTES, THE mRNA MUST BE PROCESSED (CLEANED UP) BEFORE IT CAN LEAVE

30. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
EUKARYOTIC mRNA PROCESSING
ONE TYPE OF PROCESSING IS ADDING A “CAP” AND “TAIL”
WHY DOES THIS HAPPEN??

31. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
EUKARYOTIC mRNA PROCESSING
SECOND TYPE OF PROCESSING IS REMOVAL OF NON-CODING REGIONS = RNA SPLICING
TWO TYPES
EXONS
???
INTRONS

32. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSCRIPTION : A CLOSER LOOK
EUKARYOTIC mRNA PROCESSING
RNA SPLICING
REMOVAL OF INTRONS TO PRODUCE FINAL mRNA PRODUCT
SPLICEOSOMES (A.KA. snRNP’S = PRONOUNCED SNURPS)

33. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
RIBOSOMES BUILD POLYPEPTIDES
RIBOSOMES ARE COMPOSED OF PROTEINS AND rRNA
RIBOSOMES COORDINATE mRNA, tRNA, AND AMINO ACIDS TO ALLOW PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
RIBOSOME STRUCTURE
TWO SUBUNITS (LARGE VS SMALL)
P SITE = PEPTIDYL – tRNA BINDING
A SITE = AMINOACYL – tRNA BINDING

34. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
tRNA MOLECULES SERVE AS INTERPRETERS DURING TRANSLATION
AMINO ACIDS ARE READILY AVAILABLE IN THE CELL FROM DIGESTED FOOD
tRNA PICKS UP THE APPROPRIATE AMINO ACID AND BRINGS IT TO THE MATCHING CODON OF THE mRNA

35. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
CODONS
THREE NITROGENOUS BASE “WORD” THAT SPECIFIES A PARTICULAR AMINO ACID

36. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
CODONS
4 “UNIQUE” CODONS
AUG  START CODON, ALSO CODES FOR METHIONINE
3 STOP CODONS  SIGNAL END OF TRANSLATION
“WOBBLE” HYPOTHESIS
MORE THAN ONE CODON CAN CODE FOR THE SAME AMINO ACID (OVERLAP)

37. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK

38. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
TRANSLATION CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE STAGES
INITIATION
ELONGATION
TERMINATION

39. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
INITIATION

40. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
INITIATION
2 STEPS
mRNA BINDS TO SMALL SUBUNIT OF RIBOSOME; tRNA WITH THE STARD CODON BINDS (MET = AUG)
LARGE RIBOSOMAL SUBUNIT ATTACHES, CREATING A FUCNTIONAL RIBOSOME; INITIATOR tRNA FITS INTO “P” SITE

41. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
ELONGATION
ADDS NUCLEOTIDES TO POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN
3 STEPS TO ELONGATION
CODON RECOGNITION
PEPTIDE BOND FORMATION
TRANSLOCATION

42. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
TRANSLATION : A CLOSER LOOK
TERMINATION
ELONGATION CONTINUES UNTIL A “STOP” CODON ENTERS THE “A” SITE

43. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
REVIEW

44. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
MUTATIONS CAN CHANGE THE MEANING OF GENES
MUTATION  ANY RANDOM CHANGE IN THE NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE OF DNA
CAN BE CLASSIFIED 3 WAYS
SUBSTITUTIONS
INSERTIONS (ADDITIONS)
DELETIONS

45. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
SUBSTITUTIONS
A BASE SUBSITUTION MAY CHANGE AN AMINO ACIDIN A POLYPEPTIDE, CHANGING THE PROTEIN
“WOBBLE” HYPOTHESIS??

46. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
INSERTIONS AND DELETIONS
CAN BE MORE SEVERE
THEY CHANGE THE “READING FRAME”

47. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
MUTAGENESIS
THE FORMATION OF MUTATIONS
2 COMMON WAYS
SPONTANEOUS MUTATION
ERRORS IN DNA REPLICATION/TRANSCRIPTION
UNKNOWN ORIGINS
MUTAGEN
PHYSICAL (RADIATION) OR CHEMICAL AGENT
*WHILE MUTATIONS ARE USUALLY HARMFUL; THEY CAN ALSO BE EXTREMELY USEFUL
PROMOTES EVOLUTION
IN THE LAB, PROVIDES A USEFUL TOOL FOR GENETIC RESEEARCH

48. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
VIRUSES
IN A SENSE, VIRUSES ARE NOTHING MORE THAN PACKAGED GENES

49. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
VIRUSES USE HOST CELL MACHINERY TO REPRODUCE
HOW CAN THIS LEAD TO DISEASE?
WHY ARE VIRUSES DIFFICULT TO TREAT WITH ANTI-BIOTICS?
HOW DO WE TREAT VIRUSES?

50. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
VIRUSES
TWO REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
LYTIC CYCLE

51. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
VIRUSES
TWO REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
LYSOGENIC CYCLE  **CAN LEAD TO A PROPHAGE

52. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
EMERGING VIRUSES
AIDS (HIV)
FLU
EBOLA
HANTA
HOW DO VIRUSES ARISE?
UNKNOWN!!!!
POSSIBLE THEORIES??

53. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
AIDS
HIV IS A RETROVIRUS (UNIQUE)
MAKES DNA FROM AN RNA TEMPLATE

54. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
AIDS
REQUIRES THE USE OF REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE
TURNS HOST CELL INTO A “PROVIRUS”
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AIDS & HIV??
WHY IS HIV SO DIFFICULT TO TREAT?

55. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
THE STRUCTURE OF DNA CAN TELL US HOW IT COPIES ITSELF AND HOW IT CAN GET CONVERTED INTO PROTEIN; BUT HOW COME IF EVERY CELL HAS THE SAME DNA, THEY CAN ALL LOOK DIFFERENT THAN EACH OTHER? YOU JUST HAVE TO STICK AROUND TO FIND OUT MORE!!

56. THE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE