1. cohesion

2. discourse

3. a text - spoken or written - that is functioning for some purpose within some context
discourse
a discourse (text) usually
consists of a number of sentences.

4. t e x t
s e n t e n c e s
c l a u s e s
p h r a s e s
w o r d s
sounds

5. cohesion the linguistic “cement” we use to
connect clauses and sentences
in order to make our text cohesive

6. ellipsis - leaving words out
cohesive devices
referring expressions, e.g. pronouns
substitution - replacing words with substitutes - one, do, so, not
conjunctions
ellipsis - leaving words out
lexis - using words that are related -
synonyms, antonyms, co-hyponyms etc
adjacency pairs

7. categories of referring expressions
personal pronouns
e.g. he, she, it, they, them etc;
demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those;
definite article
the
temporal expressions
now, then
locative adverbs
here, there
comparatives
same, another, similar, different etc

8. referring expressions
whereabouts is the meaning to which a referring expression refers? It could be:
earlier in the text, e.g.
The doctor crossed the road. He was in a hurry.
referring expression
anaphoric reference

9. referring expressions
The meaning to which a referring expression refers could be later in the text, e.g.
This is what I would like: a bowl of soup
referring expression
cataphoric reference

10. referring expressions
The meaning referred to could be outside the text, e.g.
I think I’m getting sunburnt. The sun is very hot today
exophoric reference

11. referring expressions
What would you like to eat?
I’ll have a piece of that cheese!
exophoric reference

12. summary of types of referring expressions
(reference)
text external
(exophoric)
text internal
(endophoric)
referring
backwards
(anaphoric)
referring
forward
(cataphoric)

13. referring expressions in text
Lilly’s grandmother told her a story.
‘Once upon a time,’ she said, ‘the ocean was filled with whales. They were as big as the hills. They were as peaceful as the moon. They were the most wondrous creatures you could ever imagine.’
Lilly climbed on her grandmother’s lap. ‘I used to sit at the end of the jetty and listen for whales,’ said Lilly’s grandmother. ‘Sometimes I’d sit there all day and all night. Then all of a sudden I’d see them coming from miles away. They moved through the water as if they were dancing.’

14. substitution
There are a small number of words which we can use as substitutes for other words, phrases or even clauses. We use them to avoid repeating a word. so do
one
not

15. Don’t you think we could have a sandwich each?
substitution
substitute for a word = one
Let’s have one while we’re waiting.
Don’t you think we could have a sandwich each?

16. substitution substitute for phrases and clauses = not, do, so
Are you coming?
I don’t think so.
Why not?

17. The boy should be back by now
ellipsis
This cohesive device is like substitution but what is substituted is Ø.
Yes. I suppose he should ( )
The boy should be back by now

18. related words
in any text, there are words that are related in some way, e.g.
tall
lanky
short
sandwich
food
synonymy
antonymy
hyponymy

19. a word about hyponymy food grain fruit meat vegetables superordinate
apples
bananas
root
leaf
animal
fish
rice
wheat
carrot
yam
co-hyponyms
hyponymy is the “kind of” relation, e.g. apples are a kind of fruit

20. lexical relations in text
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and ^^ removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring.
synonymy; antonymy; hyponymy; repetition

21. potatoes
strips
cook
softened
steam
skins
over-cooked
hard
water
(skins)
blanched
they
cut
them
sliced
meronymy
repetition
synonymy
antonymy
hypon
part/whole
kind of
similarity
opposite

22. cohesive conjunctions
used to link sentences;
can occur anywhere in a sentence – beginning, middle or end, e.g.
Don’t go so fast!
OK. We’ll be late though

23. conjunctive meanings
conjunctions express different kinds of meaning, e.g.
time - after, before, previously etc;
cause - so, consequently, therefore, as a result etc
addition – moreover, and, etc
contrast – but, however, etc
sequence – first, then, next etc

24. adjacency pairs question – answer; invitation – response;
inform – acknowledge;
greeting - response
etc
How are you?
I’m well.
How are you?

25. adjacency pairs
these provide cohesion in spoken language; a serious break in cohesion occurs if the second part of the pair is not given, e.g. if an answer to a question is not provided.
Do you like cheese?

26. coherence patterns of text organisation general – particular
chronological
simple – complex
external – internal
problem – solution
question – answer
cause – effect
claim – counter claim

27. jokingly...
In these jokes, watch for the confusion between the speakers
This confusion arises because one makes the wrong assumption about what the other is referring to.
Moral: Make sure your cohesive links are clear

28. Passenger: I have to be in Kuching at 5:45 on Sunday evening. How long does it take to fly there?
Airline Clerk: Just a minute.
Passenger: Thanks very much.

29. A: Time flies. You can’t.
B: Why not?
A: They fly too fast.

30. Teacher: Which month usually has 28 days?
Student: All of them
(The teacher left out ‘only’)

31. Do you like cleaning ladies?
I don’t know.
I’ve never cleaned one.

32. text i)
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring.
referring expressions;

33. text i)
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and [the skins are] removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but [they] will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring.
[ellipsis]; related words

34. text i)
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring.
conjunctions

35. text i) without using referring expressions and ellipsis
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and the skins are removed with steam. Next, the potatoes are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will be cooked faster but thin strips will become hard if thin strips are overcooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes the cut strips through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. Passing the cut strips through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt helps to prevent the cut strips discolouring.

36. text ii)
The government has taken a practical, hands-on approach to an issue about which something had to be done, given the feedback from the parents of children who are suffering because of their problems with the subject. At the same time, it is trying to enhance the learning of the language among top students.
The move is a courageous one because the issue is fraught with sensitivities.
conjunctions
lexical relation
substitution
exophoric reference
cataphoric reference
anaphoric reference