1. Individual Differences in Defense Mechanisms Freud concerned with DMs at level of human nature Later researchers examined individual differences –E.g.,. Which defenses one tends to use –Developmental changes in defense

2. Individual Differences in Degree of Defensiveness Repressor – Sensitizor Concept Definition: –Repressor: Avoid conscious experience of anxiety –Sensitizor: Approach conscious experience of anxiety Variability in normal personality styles

3. Measurement of RS Original RS scale ambiguous in terms of whether or not low anxiety was a result of psychological defenses Later scheme used two measures together: –Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) –Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSD)

4. Measurement of RS TMAS – measure of dispositional anxiety –Low =High = MCSD - measure of social desirability or defensiveness; tendency to present overly positive image to self (self-deception) and others (impression management). E.g., I never get mad –Low =High =

5. Measurement of RS TMASMCSD RepressorLowHigh Low AnxiousLowLow Defensive Anx.HighHigh SensitizorHighLow

6. Validity of RS measurement I. Self-reported anxiety –Classify Ps as repressors/sensitizors –Put in threatening situation –Assess anxiety –Problems?

7. Validity of RS measurement II. Self-reported anxiety and physiological responses –Classify Ps as repressors/sensitizors –Put in threatening situation –Assess anxiety and monitor GSR –Self-report/GSR dissociation

8. Validity of RS measurement III. Childhood memories –Classify Ps as repressors/sensitizors –Ask Ps to recall childhood memories –Prediction –Findings –Mechanisms: Encoding and retrieval effort (alpha waves for Rs)

9. Repressors Vs. Sensitizors Health Implications Advantages/disadvantages of different styles Adaptability of defense mechanisms

10. Research on Unconscious Two questions: –Unconscious content (can we demonstrate existence of unconscious content?) –Unconscious process (can we be affected by stimuli not consciously perceived?)

11. Unconscious Content Unconscious = material available but not accessible –Hypermnesia - recall previously inaccessible material Clinical; recovered memories – Problem; paramnesia (false memory)

12. Unconscious Content Hypermnesia –Lab; Erdelyi Present stimuli (words, pictures) Exhaustive recall tx 1 Free associate Exhaustive recall tx 2 Results tx2 > tx1 (false memory controlled)

13. Unconscious Content Dissociation - nonunitary consciousness (no awareness of material but external evidence for material) –Clinical: DID Emotion awareness –Problem: report bias

14. Unconscious Content Dissociation - Lab research –Hypnosis (Hilgard) Suggestion: No experience of pain Immerse hand cold water –No pain reported but automatic writing suggests pain

15. Unconscious Content Dissociation - Lab research –Implicit/Explicit memory divergence Explicit memory - conscious, deliberate recall Implicit memory - material affects task performance

16. Implicit-Explicit Memory Experiment Demonstrate implicit but no explicit memory Present WordsExplicit testImplicit test »Hair 0 HA_ _ »Bear BE_ _ Antegrade amnesiacs Normal participants (with delay)

17. Unconscious Content Implicit Stereotypes An implicit stereotype is a stereotype that is powerful enough to operate without conscious control. The more closely associated two concepts are, the easier it is to respond to them as a single unit. So, if young and good are strongly associated, it should be easier to respond faster when you are asked to give the same response

18. Unconscious Processes Perceptions –Semantic Priming PrimeTarget Lexical Decisions Doctor Nail Faster for related Doctor Nurse* target/prime pairs Hammer Nail* Related concepts Hammer Nurse activated –Masked primes (not perceived) yield same effect

19. Unconscious Processes Perceptions –Social Priming Person perception (inherent ambiguity) Activated (primed) constructs affect perceptions Occurs without awareness

20. Unconscious Processes Perceptions –Social Priming Experiment (Higgins, Srull) –Study 1 (prime hostility) Sentence completion: hit cat the his 80% (primed hostile) vs. 20%) –Study 2 (person perception) ambiguous description (e.g., refuse to donate) –Primed hostile perceive target more negatively no awareness; can prime subliminally

21. Unconscious Processes Affective reactions –Zajonc. Mere exposure effect: Familiarity produces liking Present stimuli left ear Shadow prose right ear Prefer exposed stimuli but no recognition Occurs with other stimuli (e.g., geometric shapes)

22. Unconscious Processes Affective reactions –Silverman. Psychopathology. Explicit test of psychoanalytic model –Model: Unconscious activate wish > Defense mechanisms > Related pathology if defenses inadequate –Subliminal presentation of aggressive stimuli increase levels of depressed for clinically depressed

23. Unconscious Processes Related Issue: What is the quality of unconscious thought? Is it superior to conscious thought? Although controversial, some research (Dijksterhuis) suggests unconscious decisions are better

24. Unconscious vs. Conscious Thought What is conscious thought? –Thinking about something while consciously attending to it What is unconscious thought? –Thinking about something while not attending to it Associating, reasoning, weighing, evaluating while consciously thinking about something else

25. Dijksterhuis (2006) Participants receive information about 4 apartments Each apartment is described by 12 aspects (Apt. A is big, Apt. C is in a nice area). Information for each apartment is presented for 15 secs. Three apartments have 5 positive and 7 negative aspects. One is better: 8 positive and 4 negative. Participants choose an apartment 1. Immediately 2. After thinking about it for three minutes 3. After being distracted for three minutes (unconscious thought)

26. Percentage Choosing Best Apartment

27. Unconscious Thought Always better? –Complex rather than simple –Processing not acquiring (input assumed to be acquired) –Some failures to replicate