1. L1 versus L2 Development

2. Noam Chomsky’s L-A-D: Nativist Theory Chomsky’s theory of the LAD (Language Acquisition Device): every human is born with innate principles of language. Children learn language spontaneously and speak creatively.

3. Environmentalist (behaviorist) theories (Skinner) Environment shapes learning and behavior Children learn language from – Input – Trial and error – Error correction

4. Noam Chomsky’s L-A-D: Nativist Theory Chomsky’s theory of the LAD (Language Acquisition Device): every human is born with innate principles of language. Children learn language spontaneously and speak creatively. Text does not cover that Chomsky (1959) addressed Skinner’s Verbal Behavior: the essential weakness in behaviorism is “the faith in the shallowness of explanations, the belief that the mind must be simpler in its structure than any known psychical organ and hat the most primitive of assumptions must be adequate to explain whatever phenomena can be observed….”

5. Critical period hypothesis: There is a critical period for language learning, but there is no agreement about how long this sensitive period lasts http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ipt0pjz0mwg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nha-lGE_wjo&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxUBkKNOz_k&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcEEvNFNETM&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsRr9COItp0&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3NGUP_JSRic&feature=related

6. How Children Learn Any Language The text covers – how children learn language through interactions and emotional bonds with others – Stages of L1 development – “bilingualism” in the sense of two languages being learned simultaneously

7. Bilingualism To learn 2 languages simultaneously, children need to be exposed to both languages equally in quantity and quality But this is not the typical developmental pattern of bilinguals We’ll cover IDEAL development, and why this doesn’t typically occur… 1. in the home 2. because of the social context

8. Ideal Bilingual Development Child learns two languages simultaneously: – One-parent-one-child approach (e.g., dad speaks English and mom speaks Spanish) Think quantity and quality: What are some problems with one-parent-one-child approach? Do children typically have linguistic exposure to mom and dad equally? What language is spoken most often? What about daycare?

9. Ideal Bilingual Development One-Parent-One-Language: – Held as “gold-standard” but many children become passive bilinguals (understand both languages, but speak only majority language proficiently) – WHY? – Both languages need equal exposure in quantity and quality.

10. Ideal Bilingual Development One-Parent-One-Language: – Held as “gold-standard” but many children become passive bilinguals (understand both languages, but speak only majority language proficiently) – WHY? – Both languages need equal exposure in quantity and quality.

11. Let’s say child does have equal quantity and quality at home. What happens outside the home? – Even very young children are sensitive to what language is spoken around them: In the sandbox at the park At the supermarket By older cousins

12. Children pick up on the dominant language, and gravitate towards it Two languages are thus never on equal footing outside the home; Research supports providing extra support for the weaker, minority language inside the home Given what we know about early exposure, what about the majority language?

13. Research supports providing extra support for the weaker, minority language inside the home: After several years of L1 in native (non-majority language), child’s language competence will be strong enough to withstand extensive and intensive exposure to majority language (in formal schooling) – Abundant research that a strong first language lays the groundwork for a strong second language; – By using first language at home, parents are supporting the future development of the second language; – A strong foundation in the first language is linked to successful learning of a second language as well as academic achievement.

14. We also see this in immigration and language trends: – immigrants arrive speaking only their native language; – their children are generally bilingual in native language and majority language; – grandchildren are most often monolingual in English. Research supports providing extra support for the weaker, minority language inside the home:

15. Example: Rumbaut, Massey, & Bean (2006) found that Mexican immigrants arriving in southern California can expect only 1 in 20 of their grandchildren to speak fluent Spanish. – “Even in the nation’s largest Spanish-speaking enclave, within a border region that historically belonged to Mexico, Spanish appears to be well on the way to a natural death by the third generation of U.S. residence.”

16. Why? 1.English is a high-status, high-prestige language (i.e., it is associated with everything that is “cool” for kids; it is the language in most professional settings) 2.Wherever they live, even very young children are aware of status encoded in language. 3.Monolingualism is the norm (think of the typical classroom)

17. Wait. So, research tells us that lots of exposure to a native language early on is good, and will provide the necessary background for transfer to a second language. We know through research that immersion is the worst, in the long-term, for English Language Learners. This doesn’t make sense.

18. Wait. So, research tells us that lots of exposure to a native language early on is good, and will provide the necessary background for transfer to a second language. We know through research that immersion is the worst, in the long-term, for English Language Learners. This doesn’t make sense.

19. What are the 3 grootste aantallen that can wordts gemaakt using the cijfers 3, 4, 6, and 7? Elk cijfer must be used only een en elk aatallen. Merkuw antwoord. A. 7643 B. 3467, 3476, 3647, 3647 C. 7643, 7634, 7463 D. 34, 36, 73 Did you figure it out?

20. Immersion = Bad? Immersion is NOT the worst L2 setting for ALL ELLs—just a particular group who is among the most “at-risk” We need to really look at what we know about language development in general, and what we know about at-risk populations

21. Immersion = Bad? Language development and skills (and later achievement) are related to: – Quantity and quality of talk – Literacy exposure in the home

22. Immersion = Bad? Quantity and quality of talk, literacy exposure in the home are related to: – SES

23. Immersion = Bad? – 60% of Hispanic families have low SES – Most ELLs are Hispanic (79%)

24. Immersion = Bad? – Therefore, when we consider Hispanic ELLs from low-SES backgrounds, we are not looking at a group of students who have had the ideal exposure in quantity/quality of native language exposure in their native language—and this is key in L2 transfer

25. Immersion = Bad? – So, immersion WORKS—but not for everyone. Most of you figured out the word problem because you have linguistic proficiency in L1. Prerequisites must be there. When they’re not, we see the deleterious effects in immersion that we’ve seen through decades of research in the US.

26. Second Language Learning Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

27. Other issues with immersion for low-SES ELLs: – In immersion settings, language is “watered- down” so students can gain content (but to increase linguistically, students need exposure to quality, high-level language) – L1 is hindered so transfer to L2 is limited – Fluency in CALPS is taken as evidence of general fluency; these students have been found to be semilingual Semilingualism: the state of an individual with incomplete development in both L1 and L2

28. Goals of most bilingual programs: Transitional early/late bilingual (majority of programs in US when bilingual education is not outlawed) – Uses theoretical framework of L1 to L2 transfer – Goal is proficiency in English Developmental bilingual (MPS) – Uses theoretical framework of L1 to L2 transfer – Goal is maintenance of both languages Two-way immersion (also called dual language) – Goal is to promote bilingualism, biliteracy, cross- cultural understanding

29. Bilingualism To learn 2 languages simultaneously, children need to be exposed to both languages equally in quantity and quality But this is not the typical developmental pattern of bilinguals We’ll cover IDEAL development, and why this doesn’t typically occur… 1. in the home 2. because of the social context Remember this slide?

30. Test in Spanish

31. Test in English

32. Dual Language Criteria for equal amounts of both languages (quantity and quality) met+ Both languages are nurtured throughout schooling = Ideal situation (Bilingualism)

33. Why is dual language the optimal setting? – There is acquisition versus learning – Children in dual language settings tend to value friends from more diverse backgrounds than members of a particular group In these settings, both languages are fostered

34. Learning vs. acquisition According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'.

35. Learning vs. acquisition The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.

36. Learning vs. acquisition The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.

37. Affective filter Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: – Motivation – self-confidence – anxiety.

38. Affective filter High motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. Does this sound familiar?

39. Reading/Literacy Instruction

40. Foundation / Theoretical Framework International Reading Association – http://www.reading.org http://www.reading.org National Reading Panel – http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrppubskey.cfm http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrppubskey.cfm Put Reading First – http://www.nifl.gov/nifl/research/reading_first1.html http://www.nifl.gov/nifl/research/reading_first1.html

41. International Reading Association Position Statement There is no single method or single combination of methods that can successfully teach all children to read. Therefore, teachers must be familiar with a wide range of methods for teaching reading and a strong knowledge of the children in their care so they can create the appropriate balance of methods needed for each child. http://www.reading.org/positions/begin_reading.html

42. The National Reading Panel report concluded that … “the most effective way to teach children to read is through instruction that includes a combination of methods.”

43. A Call for Culturally Responsive Literacy Instruction Instruction is needed that is grounded in positive beliefs about the cultural heritages and academic potentialities of culturally diverse students. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice.

44. Center on the Teacher rather than Methods and Materials To improve reading instruction, it is necessary to prepare better teachers of reading rather than to expect a panacea in the form of materials. Bond and Dykstra in IRA Position Statement 1033 – 4/99

45. Key Components of Put Reading First Phonemic Awareness Instruction Phonics Vocabulary Fluency Comprehension

46. Phonemic Awareness Instruction Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words. Reading aloud Print rich environment Songs Poems Finger plays Invented Spelling

47. Phonics – Sound/Symbols Phonics instruction teaches children the relationships between the letters of written language and the individual sounds of spoken language. Systematic phonics instruction within the complementary context of connected and meaningful reading Synthetic; Analytic; Analogy-based; Phonics through Spelling; Embedded; Onset-rime phonics instruction

48. Vocabulary Listening vocabulary – Words we know to understand what we hear Speaking vocabulary – Words we use when we speak Reading vocabulary – Words we need to know to understand what we read Writing vocabulary – Words we use in writing

49. Fluency Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. (automaticity) Repeated readings Memorization Independent silent reading Audiotapes Assistive technology

50. Comprehension Comprehension is the reason for reading. Reading is a meaning-making process. Each person constructs their own meaning. Metacognition Graphic Organizers Synthesis of information Retellings Response to text in a variety of ways

51. Principles of Teaching Reading No one best way Balance of instruction to include the whole reading process Student-centered Authentic Success Pleasure Throughout the curriculum Culturally Responsive

52. PART I How children become literate: What teachers need to know.

53. First, we know that children learn the value and functions of print by observing its use by more sophisticated readers and writers. Implications: flexible grouping; shared reading and writing

54. What teachers need to know. Second, young learners must have opportunities to engage actively in a variety of purposeful literate endeavors, including occasions to read, write, and talk about text with a more knowledgeable mentor. Implications: authentic activities; flexible groupings, scaffolding; awareness of multiple audiences for reading/writing.

55. What teachers need to know. Third, it is generally accepted that by participating in experiences involved in acquiring school literacy, students will also acquire a rich infrastructure of knowledge and skill that will enable increasingly more complex and sophisticated literacy performances. Implications: scaffolding; authentic purposes for reading/writing.

56. What teachers need to know. Fourth, teacher expectations are of almost equal importance: we know that children are more likely to achieve literate competence when it is expected that they will succeed. Implications: success/all children; race/class/gender; w/o labeling.

57. What teachers need to know. Most differences among theorists of reading acquisition revolve around how to teach these elements, not whether readers do or should learn them.

58. What teachers need to know. Quality children’s literature presents more complex, enriching language structures than is normally available in adult conversation. (multicultural literature) As young authors expand their purposes for writing, their process of composing becomes more complex as well as more focused. Ideally, home and school become complementary environments, with both supporting different faces of literacy development.

59. Exemplary Literacy Instruction Essential strategies for teachers: how to read aloud effectively how to use literature as a springboard for writing, for oral language development, and for cross- curricular studies how to effectively address language differences (e.g., ESL, dialect, non-standard English) Equitable pedagogy for all students (e.g., ethnicity, social class, gender)

60. Excellent Reading Teachers understand children's reading and writing development. can assess a child's individual progress and relate reading instruction to a child's previous experience. know a variety of ways to teach reading. are able to use a variety of materials and texts for children to read. can tailor instruction to the individual student. can help children strategically. IRA Position Statement (2000) http://www.reading.org/positions/excellent.htmlhttp://www.reading.org/positions/excellent.html

61. Part II: Learning to Read Core Understandings that support Best Practice IRA – Building a Knowledge Base in Reading (6/98) 9118

62. Reading is a complex system of deriving meaning from print. The development and maintenance of a motivation to read The development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print Sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension The ability to read fluently The ability to decode unfamiliar words The skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes or speech sounds are connected to print IRA Position Statement: 1033 – 4/99

63. Reading is … construction of meaning from text. It is an active, cognitive, and affective process.

64. Background knowledge … And prior knowledge are critical to the reading process.

65. Social Interaction … is essential to learning. Communities of learners. Vygotsky

66. Reading and writing … develop together. Complimentary processes

67. Reading involves … Complex thinking!

68. Reading is facilitated in … Environments rich in literacy experiences, resources, and models. Children need the opportunity to read, read, read.

69. Reading is social … Communities of learners support literacy development.

70. Engagement in the Reading Task … Is the KEY in successfully learning to read. Children learn successful reading strategies in the context of REAL reading.

71. A variety of strategies … Must be modeled and demonstrated When you select ONE program, one method, or one set of materials, you just limited your options for reaching all children.

72. Children deserve classroom assessments that … are regular extensions of instruction; provide useful feedback based on clear, attainable,worthwhile standards; exemplify quality performances illustrating the standards; and position students as partners with teachers in evaluating their progress and setting goals. Recognizes and values student cultural diversity Assessments must provide information for instructional decision making as well as for public accountability. IRA 1042 3/00

73. Exemplary Literacy Instruction must: be broadly supported by school-wide, family and community efforts be grounded in a classroom environment that motivates reading and writing be planned in terms of design, delivery, and evaluation include explicit, systematic instruction be responsive to individual needs (e.g., culturally relevant instruction) involve technology as both a literacy medium and resource

74. Exemplary Literacy Instruction Regular classroom teachers, reading specialists, advanced reading professionals, and special education teachers must be fluent in their understanding and use of the sound system of the English language.

75. Teachers must: understand and be able to apply all word recognition strategies know when each strategy and skill is applicable be able to help students learn how to manipulate letters, sounds, rhyming words, and word families and how to decode words they do not recognize immediately.

76. Exemplary Literacy Instruction Warning: Programs that center on one part of the literacy equation at the expense of others train readers who may be unable to understand or enjoy what they read. (4-Blocks) - Balance

77. Exemplary Literacy Instruction An essential key to providing exemplary writing instruction is for teachers to engage personally in the writing process themselves: to view themselves as writers to experience the types of frustrations that students experience when they write to use those experiences to help their students develop strategies for working through tough pieces of writing to find their own voice in their work.

78. Exemplary Literacy Instruction Inherent in sound writing instruction is understanding how to provide constructive feedback and how to alert students to problem areas in their writing that need to be improved. Safe, non-critical classroom environments must exist if students are to have the freedom of self-expression in print. Teacher education programs must include instruction in how to set up and maintain a supportive, non-threatening classroom atmosphere that encourages risk taking.

79. Problems/Solutions Simply raising standards, testing children, providing early intervention, improving teacher education, and using research-based practices will not work because each addresses only isolated facets of classroom reading instruction.

80. Challenges Poverty Diversity Family StrStr e s s Teacher Shortage

81. References Summary of a position statement of the International Reading Association: Using Multiple Methods of Beginning Reading Instruction (April 1999). Available on-line: http://www.reading.org/positions/begin_reading.html http://www.reading.org/positions/begin_reading.html Position statement of the International Reading Association: Making a Difference Means Making It Different: Honoring Children's Rights to Excellent Reading Instruction (March 2000). Available on-line: http://www.reading.org/positions/MADMMID.html http://www.reading.org/positions/MADMMID.html

82. Developing Early Literacy Report of the National Early Literacy Panel

83. Coordinated by: National Center for Family Literacy (NCFL) Funded by: National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) In consultation with: National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) U.S. Department of Education Head Start Bureau, Department of Health and Human Services

84. Background Increase the use of research in educational decision making Limits of the Report of the National Reading Panel Need for comparable information on early literacy and family literacy

85. Questions Addressed by the Research Synthesis

86. Research Questions What helps children to develop the skills and abilities that are linked to the children’s development reading, writing and spelling? What contexts facilitate or inhibit the effectiveness of these efforts? With whom do these efforts work best?

87. Research Questions To answer those questions, it is necessary to define or identify the appropriate outcome measures. What skills and abilities are linked to later outcomes in reading, writing and spelling?

88. Emergent Literacy What skills constitute the domain of conventional literacy skills?  Decoding  Oral reading fluency  Reading Comprehension  Spelling  Writing

89. How to Define Emergent Literacy Two conditions required for something to be considered an emergent literacy skill:  Must come before conventional literacy skills.  Must be related to conventional literacy skills.

90. Identifying Emergent Literacy Skills Some suggestions:  oral language  concepts about print  environmental print  alphabet knowledge  phonological processing skills  visual-perceptual skills  emergent (pretend) reading  emergent (pretend) writing

91. Identifying the Studies for RQ1 7300 publications were screened against initial criteria – Published in English – Published in a refereed journal – Empirical research – Include children between the ages of 0 and 5 or kindergarten children

92. This screening resulted in the identification of: 299 studies identified that involved a predictive relation between a preschool or K skill and a later-measured conventional literacy outcome (decoding, reading comprehension, spelling).

93. Decoding PredictorAverage rN of studiesN of children Decoding nonwords.728763 Spelling.6071,184 Invented spelling.5810778 Reading NOS.5731,739 Decoding NOS.535877 Decoding words.52214,121 Reading comprehension.525700 ABC knowledge.50527,570 Readiness.5051,988 Writing/writing name.49101,650 Arithmetic.45143,929 IQ.45132,015 Phonological awareness.40698,443

94. Decoding (cont). PredictorAverage rN of studiesN of children RAN letters/digits.40122,081 Concepts about print.34122,604 Oral language.33639,358 RAN objects/colors.32163,100 Phonological NOS.313174 Performance IQ.30152.792 Print awareness.296683 Environmental print.2861,042 Phonological STM.26334,863 Visual motor.25141,316 Visual memory.2281,708 Visual perception.22162,551

95. Comprehension PredictorAverage rN of studiesN of children Readiness.593348 Concepts about print.543535 ABC knowledge.48172,038 Print awareness.484347 Phonological awareness.44202,461 RAN letters/digits.433333 RAN objects/colors.4261,146 Decoding nonwords.413282 Decoding words.4061,091 Phonological STM.39131,911 Arithmetic.3581,197 Performance IQ.345253

96. Comprehension (cont). PredictorAverage rN of studiesN of children Oral language.33304,015 Writing/writing name.334565 Visual perception.2691,438 Visual motor.2291,333 Concept knowledge.203873 Visual memory.175875

97. Criteria for Meta-Analyses  Meta-analysis requires a minimum of three studies contributing an effect size to allow interpretation.  Additionally, we designated correlations in the following manner: Strong relationships:.50 or greater Moderate relationships:.30 -.50 Weak relationships:.00 -.30

98. Identifying Emergent Literacy Skills  A number of variables have moderate to strong relations with later conventional literacy outcomes in a relatively large number of studies with a relatively large number of children (meaning they are sizable, reliable, and stable):

99. Strong to Moderate Predictors:  Alphabet Knowledge  Concepts About Print  Phonological Awareness  Oral Language  Writing Name/Writing  RAN (Rapid Automatic Naming/Lexical Access)

100. Identifying Emergent Literacy Skills Other variables have smaller effects or have not been studied often or with many children:  Visual Motor Skills  Visual Memory  Visual Perceptual Skills  Environmental Print

101. Identifying Emergent Literacy Skills Variables not in the table have not yet been demonstrated to be predictive of conventional literacy skills. An important caution: these findings are based only on zero-order correlations. –Correlations may reflect third variables. –Variables may share predictive variance.

102. Identifying Emergent Literacy Skills Greater confidence of the importance of a variable would be obtained if that variable contributed unique predictive variance to an outcome once other important variables were controlled. For example, does a variable predict a reading outcome above and beyond variance shared with IQ or language skill?

103. Identifying Emergent Literacy Skills Examination of multivariate studies indicates that several of these predictors provide independent predictive information even when measured within the context of other variables.

104. Unique predictors from the multivariate studies: Alphabet Knowledge Phonological Awareness Rapid Automatic Naming Writing/Writing Name Phonological STM

105. Summary of Correlational Analyses

106. Additional Analyses  Do variables have stronger or weaker predictive relations depending on when they were measured (Pre-K vs. K)?  Do variations in the aspect of oral language measured make a difference (e.g., vocabulary vs. grammar)?  Do variations in the aspect of phonological awareness measured make a difference (e.g., syllables vs. phonemes)?

107. Does Age at Assessment Matter? For the most part, age at assessment did not matter. Skills that were important predictors of later conventional literacy skills were important whether assessed in preschool or in kindergarten. When differences were found, they typically indicated a stronger relation for the earlier (preschool) assessment.

108. What parts of oral language are examined matters a lot. Vocabulary is a weak predictor of later decoding and comprehension. More complex aspects of oral language, like grammar and definitional vocabulary, are very strong predictors of decoding and comprehension. Does oral language definition matter?

109. Oral Language Predictors

110. Do the types of PA differ? Early forms of phonological awareness are strong predictors of later reading skills. Measures of rhyme are not the best indicators of how well children are acquiring phonological awareness. Development moves from larger units to smaller units of sound.

111. What works? Determining causal relationships: Cause must precede the effect Cause must be related to the effect We can find no other plausible alternative explanation for the effect other than the cause.

112. Cause and Effect Research studies vary in their ability to address cause and effect relationships Studies can be placed in a general hierarchy according to how much causal information they can provide Experiments Quasi-experiments Correlational studies Case studies

113. Cause and Effect Research studies vary in their ability to address cause and effect relationships Studies can be placed in a general hierarchy according to how much causal information they can provide Experiments Quasi-experiments Correlational studies Case studies

114. Redid original search to include studies that had outcomes identified in first part of study (oral language, alphabet knowledge, PA, etc.) Over 900 articles were retrieved and reviewed by panelists. 138 articles were categorized by intervention type. Reviewing Research on What Works

115. Category 1: Helping Children Make Sense of Print--Cracking the Alphabetic Code and Teaching Letters and Words (PA, Letter Knowledge, Spelling, Phonics, Print Awareness, Visual Perceptual/Perceptual Motor) (67 articles)

116. Category 2: Reading to and Sharing Books with Young Children (16 articles) Category 3: Parent and Home Programs for Improving Young Children’s Literacy (20 articles)

117. Category 4: Preschool and Kindergarten Programs (16 articles) Category 5: Language Enhancement Studies (19 articles)

118. Code-Focused Interventions All of this work was done individually or in small group PA training included analysis or synthesis of words, syllables, onset-rimes, phonemes (with feedback) Age/developmental level made no difference in the benefits of this kind of teaching, but what was taught varied (larger to smaller units)

119. Code-Focused Interventions No studies on alphabet learning alone, but when ABCs and working with print were combined with PA it seemed to be more beneficial

120. Code-Focused Interventions Moderate to large effects on early literacy skills and conventional literacy skills Most the studies examined some form of phonological awareness training There was no point along the learning continuum that code-focused learning wasn’t important

121. Category 1 Effects for Subset of Outcome Constructs

122. Reading to Children Moderate effects on oral language skills and print knowledge Oral language effects were evident across demographic groups, types of interventions, and student risk factors Almost no studies looked at the impact of reading to children on reading or on other emergent literacy skills

123. Reading to Children Biggest impact were derived from dialogic reading as opposed to just reading Biggest payoff on the simplest measures of oral language Given the lack of evidence on other literacy outcomes, it would be imprudent to make reading to children a program in and of itself

124. Oral Language Effects for Dialogic Reading

125. Home and Parent Programs Parent programs had moderate to large effects on oral language outcomes and general cognitive abilities Included programs with general goals (health, cognitive functioning) along with those with more specific focus (oral language) Some programs included home visits or one- on-one parent training

126. Home and Parent Programs Positive findings for both simple and complex measures of oral language Few studies that considered other variables (one study looked at ABCs, 2 looked at PA) Findings were robust across age levels and demographic groups

127. Average Effects for Parent Programs

128. Preschool and Kindergarten Programs This category looks at literacy-focused instruction in preschool and kindergarten (not counting studies on language intervention, shared reading, or code-focused interventions) Preschool and kindergarten programs had a positive affect on young children’s development of conventional and emergent literacy skills

129. Preschool and Kindergarten Programs Biggest impact was on reading readiness measures, and (at kindergarten) spelling Literacy-focused curriculum combined with professional development was effective Preschool and kindergarten programs had almost no impact on oral language (though preschool effects seemed larger)

130. Preschool and Kindergarten Programs Big impacts on reading and writing in terms of outcomes, but very diverse findings and small numbers of studies Parent involvement did not improve the effectiveness of these programs

131. Average Effects for Preschool and Kindergarten Programs

132. Language Intervention Programs Interventions designed to improve young children’s oral language skills were effective, with moderate to large effects on a variety of outcomes Interventions often focused children’s attention on particular aspects of language or got them to interact with language in particular ways

133. Language Intervention Programs New vocabulary or question types may be introduced to children in a natural context (daily routines, play); or this may take place within a learning setting (teacher asking children to compare pictures) Play-based interventions (e.g., toys, children in control of activity) were as effective as learning-based ones

134. Language Intervention Programs Most interventions were evaluated with vocabulary measures (19), but there were positive effects for cognitive ability, phonemic awareness, print knowledge, RAN, readiness, reading. Effects were biggest for children with language problems, but effective with everyone Programs were most effective with younger children (3 and younger)

135. Oral Language Effects for Oral Language Interventions