1. Chapter 6: Conditioning and Learning

2. What is Learning? Learning – Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience – Excludes temporary changes – Excludes more permanent changes due to disease, injury, maturation, injury, or drugs

3. Types of Learning Associative Learning Occurs when a person or animal forms a simple association between stimuli and response Reinforcement – Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur Response: – Any identifiable behavior – Internal: Faster heartbeat – Observable: Eating, scratching

4. Types of Learning Associative Learning Antecedents – Events that precede a response Consequences – Effects that follow a response

5. Types of Learning Associative Learning Two types – Classical Conditioning – Operant Conditioning

7. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist who initially was studying digestion – Used dogs to study salivation – Saw dogs salivate before food placed in their mouth – Saw dogs salivate when he entered room

9. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiment – Neutral Stimulus Stimulus that does not evoke a response – Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response – Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

10. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiment (cont’d) – Reflex Automatic, nonlearned innate response to a stimulus e.g., an eyeblink – Unconditioned Response (UCR) An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – Conditioned Response (CR) A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

13. Principles of Classical Conditioning Acquisition – Training period in conditioning when a response is reinforced – Respondent reinforcement occurs when the US elicits a response, which becomes associated with the CS

15. Principles of Classical Conditioning Higher Order Conditioning: – A conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning – A CS is used as if it were a UCS

17. Principles of Classical Conditioning Expectancies – Expectation about how events are interconnected – The brain learns to expect that the US will follow the CS Brain prepared body to respond

18. Principles of Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement – May take several extinction sessions to reverse conditioning Spontaneous Recovery – Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

19. Principles of Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization: – A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus

21. Principles of Classical Conditioning Stimulus Discrimination – The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

22. Classical Conditioning in Humans Conditioned Emotional Responses – Learned Fears Phobia – Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific situation or object Conditioned Emotional Response – Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus – Amygdala becomes more active; produces feelings of fear

24. Classical Conditioning in Humans Conditioned Emotional Responses – Desensitization Therapy for Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs) Exposes phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

25. Vicarious or Secondhand Conditioning Vicarious Classical Conditioning – Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions – Explains how we develop attitudes to foods, politics, ethnic groups, etc.

26. Operant Conditioning Learning based on the consequences of responding Law of Effect (Thorndike) – The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has Responses that lead to desired effects are repeated Those that lead to undesired effects are not Operant Reinforcer – Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring

27. Operant Conditioning Acquiring an operant response – Studies with animals use special apparatus – Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)

28. Operant Conditioning Response-Contingent Reinforcement: – Reinforcement given only when a particular response occurs – We learn to expect that a certain response will have a certain effect at certain times

30. Operant Conditioning: Timing of Reinforcement Operant reinforcement most effective when it immediately follows a correct response – Ideally, less than 50 seconds

32. Operant Conditioning: Timing of Reinforcement Response Chain – A linked series of actions that leads to reinforcement – Example: dog agility training Superstitious Behavior – Behavior that is repeated because it appeared to produce reinforcement – However, behavior is unnecessary

33. Operant Conditioning: Shaping Shaping – Molding responses gradually to a final desired pattern – Successive Approximations Ever-closer matches

35. Operant Conditioning: Operant Extinction Operant Extinction – When learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away Spontaneous Recovery – Brief return of an operant response after extinction – May be adaptive

36. Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement: – When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event – Increases the likelihood a response will reoccur Negative Reinforcement: – When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event or by an end to discomfort – Increases the likelihood a response will reoccur

37. Operant Conditioning Punishment: – When a response is followed by an aversive stimulus – Decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking) – Can also take the form of a response cost Removal of a reinforcer or positive state of affairs Example: Time out

39. Types of Operant Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: – Nonlearned and natural – satisfies biological needs – EXAMPLE: food, water, sex – Intracranial Self-Stimulation (ICSS) Natural primary reinforcer involves direct electrical activation of brain’s “pleasure centers”

41. Types of Operant Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcer – Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval) – Often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer

42. Secondary Reinforcers Token Reinforcer – Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips) – Can be exchanged for primary reinforcers – Don’t lose reinforcing value as quickly as primary reinforcers Token economies – Manage and alter behavior through reinforcement of selected responses

44. Secondary Reinforcers Social Reinforcer – Learned desires for attention and approval

45. Types of Operant Reinforcers Feedback and Knowledge of Results – Provide information about the effect of a response – Important for human learning – Most effective when frequent, immediate, and detailed

46. Feedback Programmed Instruction – Information is presented in small amounts gives immediate practice, provides continuous feedback

47. Feedback Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI): – Learning is aided by computer-presented information and exercises Educational simulations allow exploration of imaginary situations

50. Partial Reinforcement Situation or pattern where reinforcers do not follow every response; only a portion are reinforced Partial Reinforcement Effect – Responses acquired by partial reinforcement are very resistant to extinction May follow a Schedule of Reinforcement – Plans for determining which responses will be reinforced

51. Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) – A set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer Produce high response rates Variable Ratio Schedule (VR) – A varied (average) number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer Produce high response rates Produces greater resistance to extinction than fixed ratio schedule

52. Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) – The first correct response made after a certain amount of time has elapsed is reinforced Produces moderate response rates Variable Interval Schedule (VI) – Reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after a varied (average) amount of time Slow, steady response rates Extremely resistant to extinction

54. Stimulus Control Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded response tend to influence when and where the response will occur

55. Stimulus Control Operant Stimulus Generalization – Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement Operant Stimulus Discrimination – Occurs when one learns to differentiate between the antecedent stimuli that signal either an upcoming reward or a nonreward condition

56. Punishment Punisher – Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior – Two types: Onset of unpleasant event Response cost

57. Variables Affecting Punishment Affected by – Timing – Consistency – Intensity

59. Variables Affecting Punishment Intensity – Severe Punishment Intense punishment Capable of suppressing a response for a long period (perhaps permanently) – Mild Punishment Weak punishment Usually slows responses temporarily

60. The Downside of Punishment It’s aversive (painful or unpleasant) Anything associated with punishment tends to be feared, resented, or disliked Encourages – Escape Learning – Avoidance Learning May also increase aggression Physically punished children are more likely to engage in aggressive, impulsive, antisocial behavior Doesn’t teach “right” behaviors

62. Using Punishment Wisely 1.Avoid harsh punishment 2.Use minimum punishment necessary to suppress misbehavior 3.Apply punishment during or immediately after misbehavior 4.Be consistent 5.Use counter-conditioning 6.Expect anger from punished person 7.Punish with kindness and respect

63. Cognitive Learning Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation

64. Cognitive Maps Internal representation of an area, like a city or a maze; Underlies ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal

65. Latent Learning Occurs without obvious reinforcement Not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided Related to higher abilities, such as anticipation

67. Latent Learning Rote Learning – Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules Discovery Learning – Learning based on insight and understanding – People discover facts and principles – Guided discovery Freedom to explore with guidance

69. Modeling Also called observational learning (Albert Bandura) Occurs two ways: – by watching and imitating actions of another person – by noting consequences of a person’s actions Occurs before direct practice is allowed Allows skipping of trial-and-error learning

70. Modeling Model – Someone who serves as an example in observational learning Steps to Successful Modeling – Pay attention to model – Remember what was done – Be able to reproduce modeled behavior – If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to be imitated

71. Imitating Models Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments – An adult hit the doll with a hammer, sat on it, punched it, and kick it – 3 groups children watched adult perform behaviors children watched a movie of an adult perform behaviors children watched a cartoon version of an adult perform behaviors

72. Imitating Models Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments (cont’d) – Children were put into room and frustrated – Children’s behaviors toward Bo-Bo doll imitated adults’ Message: Children will do as you do, not do as you say.

74. Modeling and the Media All media provides opportunities for imitation – Pro wrestling, rap music, video games Typical TV viewers are exposed to a massive dose of media violence – Tends to promote observational learning of aggression – Links between aggressive TV and aggressive behavior

76. Modeling and the Media Media violence does not “cause” aggression, but makes it more likely, especially if children Believe aggression is acceptable problem-solving Believe TV violence is realistic Identify with TV characters Don’t realize that TV stories and characters are fantasies Video games may desensitize players to violence and allow them to practice violence against other people.

77. Psychology in Action: Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project Self-Managed Behavioral Principles 1.Choose a target behavior 2.Record a baseline 3.Establish goals 4.Choose reinforcers 5.Record your progress 6.Reward successes 7.Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior

78. Psychology in Action: Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project Self-Managed Behavioral Principles (cont’d) – Premack Principle Any high frequency response can be used to reinforce a low frequency response – Self-Recording Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies We act differently when we know we are being observed

79. Psychology in Action: Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project Breaking Bad Habits – Alternate Responses Try to get the same reinforcement with a new response. – Extinction Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the reinforcement.

80. Psychology in Action: Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project Breaking Bad Habits – Response Chains Scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired response. – Cues and Antecedents Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit

81. Psychology in Action: Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project Breaking Bad Habits – Behavioral Contracting State a specific problem behavior you wish to control or a goal you wish to achieve State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you must accept Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to sign it