1. East Asia

2. The most populous world region with 1.6 billion people, dominated by China (1.35 billion people). China’s dominance is due to population, physical size and economic role in global economy. Incomes have risen and cities have boomed, but so have air and water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

3. Millions of rural young adults flocking to E. Asia’s coastal cities to work in factories. Rural-to-urban migration is illegal because hukou system ties rural people to place of birth - migration requires permission from authorities. Almost 160 million ignore hukou system and become part of floating population - no rights to housing, schools, or health care in places to which they have migrated. These migrants work low-wage jobs and send money home to families living in rural areas.

6. Collision of Indian subcontinent with Eurasia created Himalayas and lifted Plateau of Tibet. Broad arc of basins, plateaus and mountain ranges, including rolling highland grasslands and deep, dry basins and deserts in western China. Broad coastal plains and deltas of China’s great rivers. Continental shelf, covered by Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea - Hong Kong and Taiwan are anchored on this shelf. Islands of Japan are volcanic - tectonically active zone. Japan vulnerable to volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis (seismic sea waves).

7. Interiors of large landmasses in mid-latitudes tend to be intensely cold in winter and extremely hot in summer. Western E. Asia is farther away from an ocean than any other place on Earth’s surface. Little vegetation or cloud cover to retain warmth of Sun after nightfall … summer daytime and nighttime temperature vary by as much as 100°F (55°C). Grasslands and deserts cover most of this dry region. Scattered forests grow on few relatively well-watered mountain slopes and in protected valleys supplied with water by snowmelt.

8. During dry winter monsoon, descending frigid air sweeps S. and E. producing long, bitter winters on Mongolian Plateau, North China Plain, and China’s Far NE. During summer monsoon, as continent warms, air above it rises, pulling in wet, tropical air from adjacent seas - deposits moisture on land as seasonal rains. Korea and Japan have wet climates year- round, similar to those found along the Atlantic Coast of U.S., because of proximity to sea - They still have hot summers and cold winters because of northerly location and exposure to continental effects of huge Eurasian landmass.

10. Entire coastal zone of East Asia is intermittently subject to typhoons (tropical cyclones or hurricanes from western Pacific Ocean). Japan’s location makes it vulnerable to volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis - heavily populated zone from Tokyo SW through Inland Sea is particularly vulnerable.

11. Climate change, especially global warming, is a growing concern in East Asia. China now world’s largest overall producer of greenhouse gases but still produces less than 1/3 of U.S. emissions on per capita basis. Japan is also a major emitter. China’s greenhouse gas emissions make up almost 1/4 of world’s total - will possibly double by 2030 as urban households use more cars, air conditioning, appliances, and computers.

13. Glaciers on Plateau of Tibet capture monsoon moisture and store as frozen ice … slowly released as meltwater. Huang He and Chang Jiang rivers partially fed by glaciers … now melting so rapidly they will eventually disappear. Lower flows in rivers during winter has affected trade and could reduce available irrigation for dry-season farming. Nearly every year, abnormally low rainfall or abnormally high temps. create drought somewhere in China - often cause more suffering and damage than any other natural hazard. Many dry areas in China subject to strong winds that blow away topsoil once vegetation is removed to grow crops … desertification and dust storms.

14. Under usual conditions, huge amounts of rain deposited on eastern China during summer monsoon can cause catastrophic floods along major rivers. If global warming leads to even slight changes in rainfall patterns, flooding could be much more severe. Until Sendai earthquake and tsunami of 2011, Japan planned to increase use of nuclear power to reduce greenhouse gas emissions … tsunami washed over Fukushima nuclear plant and destroyed cooling systems … meltdown of several nuclear reactors. Forced evacuation of over 200,000 people; temporarily contaminated water supply of Tokyo; contaminated ground, food, and livestock for miles around, released thousands of gallons of water containing 10,000x normal level of iodine-131 (radioactive substance) into Pacific Ocean.

15. East Asia’s food security - capacity of people in a geographic area to consistently provide themselves with adequate food - is increasingly linked to global economy. 75% of food consumed in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan is imported. China is nearly self-sufficient with regard to basic necessities, but relies on imports of commodities to supply growing demands for grain and soybeans for animal feed and luxury food items. Recent price increases for grain and other basic food commodities illustrate perils of dependence on food imports.

16. Just over 1/2 of E. Asia can support agriculture, but food production has been pushed beyond what can be sustained over long term, and fertile zones are shrinking. Urban populations growing more affluent … consuming more meat and animal products that require more land and resources than plant- based national diet of the past.

18. Region’s most important grain is rice. In central and southern China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, rainfall is sufficient to sustain wet rice cultivation (requires plant roots to be submerged in water for part of growing season). Requires elaborate systems of water management - centuries of human effort have channeled rivers into intricate irrigation systems, and whole mountainsides have been transformed into descending terraces that evenly distribute water.

19. Many East Asians depend heavily on ocean-caught fish for protein. People in Japan, South Korea, and Hong Kong eat more than twice as much fish and shellfish as do Americans. Japanese fishing off western Africa has reduced catches of local fishers so much that many have been forced to migrate to Europe for work. People in China are also dependent on fish protein in their diets. China is world’s largest fish producer, and much of output is consumed domestically - most of China’s fishing industry is based on aquaculture rather than on wild-caught fish.

20. Use of animals in East Asia not solely for food production – e.g., aquaculture contributes to aesthetic beauty of carefully manicured landscapes - Carp are often used in this role. Traditional Chinese medicine involves capturing wild animals believed to have healing properties - led to some species becoming endangered. In Mongolia, many species of animals are fundamental to nomadic husbandry.

21. Largest dam in the world - 600 ft (183 m) high and 1.4 mi (2.3 km) wide. Designed to improve navigation on Chang Jiang and control flooding, but most lauded for role in generating hydroelectricity. Enormous weight of water and percolation through geological fissures in reservoir behind dam could trigger earthquakes. Plan to build Three Gorges Dam came just as development specialists were deciding that benefits dams could bring do not sufficiently outweigh many problems they cause.

22. Air pollution is often severe throughout E. Asia, but air quality in China’s cities is particularly poor. Coal burning is primary source of pollution - China is world’s largest consumer and producer of coal - 46% of all coal burned on planet each year. Worst pollution is often in cities - homes are in close proximity to industries that depend heavily on coal for fuel. Use of coal to heat homes can be detrimental to people’s health. Sulfur dioxide from coal burning contributes to acid rain - displaced to NE by prevailing winds, reaching Koreas, Japan, Taiwan, and beyond. Air pollution from vehicles is severe - use of cars for personal transportation in China is just beginning.

24. Public health risks related to air pollution are also serious in largest cities of Japan (Tokyo and Osaka), Taiwan (Taipei), Mongolia (Ulan Bator), and South Korea (Seoul), and in adjacent industrial zones. Taiwan has some of the dirtiest air in the world - main causes are extreme population density (250 people per sq mi - 646 per sq km), high rate of industrialization, and close proximity to industrialized south China. N. Korea - Relatively few industries and very few cars, so air pollution levels are thought to be low (although few reliable data are available for N. Korea). S. Korea - Uses fossil fuels in numerous industries and has many gasoline-powered cars.

26. Region’s earliest complex civilizations appeared in various parts of what is now China about 4000 years ago. Small, militarized, feudal aristocracy controlled vast estates - majority of pop. lived and worked as semi-enslaved farmers and laborers. Qin empire (221 B.C.E.) instituted trained and salaried bureaucracy in combination with strong military to extend monarch’s authority into countryside. Proved more efficient than feudal system - increased ag. output and managed levees, reservoirs, and other tax-supported public works. Subsequent empires maintained Qin bureaucratic ruling methods - have proved essential in governing a united China.

28. Confucius (551 to 479 B.C.E) – Interested in reforming government and eliminating violence. Confucian values include courtesy, knowledge, integrity, and respect for and loyalty to parents and gov’t officials. Model for Confucianism was patriarchal extended family - oldest male held seat of authority and responsible for family’s well-being - Emperor was grand patriarch of all China. Confucianism developed limited roles for women … sons more valuable offspring, with public roles, while daughters primarily servants within home. Merchants characterized as necessary evil, greedy and disruptive to social order.

29. Confucian bureaucracy facilitated expansion of imperial China, but resistance to change also led to periods of decline. Heavy taxes on farmers brought about revolts - weakened imperial control. Invasions by nomadic people from Mongolia and western China … creation of massive defenses, e.g., Great Wall. 1200s - Mongolian military leader Genghis Khan and his descendants able to conquer all of China - pushed west as far as Hungary and Poland. Mongol (Yuan) Empire - Traders (e.g., Marco Polo) made first direct contacts between China and Europe. 1100 to 1600 - China remained world’s most developed region.

30. Zheng He - Chinese Muslim admiral in Ming dynasty’s navy - directed expeditions with advanced ships through SE Asia, across Indian Ocean, and to east coast of Africa. Regions that Zheng He explored lacked trade goods that China wanted, and empire threatened by nomads from Mongolia. Emperor decided Zheng He’s explorations not worth effort, and China reduced contacts with rest of world … Slowed pace of technological change, leaving China ill-prepared to respond to growing challenges from Europe after 1600.

31. Mid-1500s - Spanish and Portuguese traders interested in acquiring China’s silks, spices, and ceramics found their way to East Asian ports - brought new food crops from Americas. By 19th century - European merchants gained access to Chinese markets and European influence increased markedly. To gain Chinese silks and ceramics, British merchants supplied opium from India. Emperor attempted to crack down on drug trade because of debilitating effects on Chinese society … Opium Wars (1839-1860) against Britain.

32. Britain badly defeated China. Hong Kong became British possession, and British trade, including opium, expanded throughout China, well into 20th century.

33. Japan rapidly modernized, and in 1895, won spectacular naval victory over China in Sino-Japanese war. After defeat by Japanese, Qing dynasty made only halfhearted attempts at modernization. 1912 – Qing dynasty overthrown by internal revolt. Beginning with decline of Qing empire (1895) until China’s Communist Party took control in 1949, much of country was governed by provincial rulers in rural areas and by mixture of Chinese, Japanese, and European administrative agencies in major cities.

34. Lack of central Chinese authority … two rival groups arose in early 20 th century: Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT) and Chinese Communist Party (CCP). KMT’s support base was urban workers and middle and upper classes - united country in 1924, but 1931 Japanese invasion changed dynamic - did not resist Japanese effectively. CCP waged constant guerilla war against Japanese throughout rural China. Japan’s brutal occupation caused 10 million Chinese deaths, including widespread killing of civilians in Nanjing - “Rape of Nanjing.” Japan withdrew in 1945, defeated in WW II by U.S., Russia, and other Allied forces. CCP pushed KMT into Taiwan. 1949 - CCP (led by Mao Zedong) proclaimed People’s Republic of China.

35. Mao Zedong’s government - Most powerful China ever had - dominated outlying areas of China and launched brutal occupation of Tibet (Xizang). Economic and social life became subject to central planning by Communist Party. Land and wealth were reallocated, often resulting in improved standard of living for those who needed it most. Heroic efforts made to improve agricultural production and to reduce severity of floods and droughts. The masses, regardless of age, class, or gender, were mobilized to construct huge public works projects - roads, dams, canals, whole mountains terraced into fields for rice and other crops.

36. “Barefoot doctors” with rudimentary medical training dispensed basic medical care, midwife services, and nutritional advice in remotest locations. Schools built in smallest of villages. Opportunities for women became available, and some of worst abuses against them were stopped, (e.g., binding women’s feet to make their feet small and childlike).

37. Mao’s progress came at enormous human and environmental costs. Great Leap Forward (program of massive economic reform initiated in 1950s) saw 30 million dead from famine brought on by poorly planned development objectives and persecution of opposition. Deforestation, soil degradation, and agricultural mismanagement became widespread. 1966 - Cultural Revolution enforced support for Mao and punished dissenters. Everyone required to study “Little Red Book” of Mao’s sayings. Educated people and intellectuals main target of Cultural Revolution - thought to instigate critical evaluations of Mao and Communist Party central planning. Tens of millions of Chinese scientists, scholars, and students sent to labor in mines and industries or to jail - as many as 1 million died.

38. Two years after Mao’s death, new leadership formed around Deng Xiaoping. Limited market reforms instituted, but Communist Party retained tight political control. 2009 - China’s economy became third largest in world, behind EU and U.S. Disparity of wealth in China has been increasing for some years, human rights are still often abused, and political activity remains tightly controlled.

39. Mid-16th century- Trade with Portuguese colonists brought new ideas and technology - strengthened Japan’s wealthier feudal lords (shoguns), allowing them to unify country under military bureaucracy. 1853 - Arrival of U.S. naval fleet with advanced technology - group of reformers (Meiji) seized control of government, setting country on crash course of modernization and industrial development (Meiji Restoration). 1895-1945 - Japan fueled economy with resources from colonial empire. Armies occupied Korea, Taiwan, coastal and eastern China, and eventually Indonesia and much of SE Asia. After Japan’s defeat in WW II, U.S. government imposed social and economic reforms, (e.g., required to create democratic constitution, reduce emperor to symbolic status, military reduced dramatically.

41. End of WWII – U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed to divide former Japanese colony. Communist regime established in north and U.S. instituted similar reforms to Japan in S. Korea. Late 1940s - U.S. withdrew troops, N. Korea attacked S. Korea … U.S. troops returned, leading 3-yr war against n0rth and allies (U.S.S.R. and Communist China). 1953 – War ended in truce … demilitarized zone (DMZ) near 38 th parallel - de facto border between N. and S. Korea. N. Korea closed itself off from rest of world after war - Today it is isolated, impoverished, and defensive. S. Korea developed into prosperous and technologically advanced market economy.

42. For thousands of years, Taiwan was poor, agricultural island. 1895-1945 - Became part of Japan’s regional empire. 1949 - Chinese nationalists (Kuomintang) pushed out of mainland China by Chinese Communist Party - set up anti-communist government in Taiwan, naming it Republic of China (ROC). Next 50 years (with U.S. aid and encouragement) ROC became modern industrialized economy - quickly dwarfed China and remained dominant until 1990s. Taiwan remains economic powerhouse - Taiwanese investors especially active in Shanghai and cities of China’s SE coast, yet mainland China has never relinquished claim to Taiwan.

43. For millennia, Mongolia’s nomadic horsemen periodically posed threat to China - Great Wall was built and reinforced and extended to combat them. China controlled Mongolia from 1691-1920s. Revolutionary communism spread to Mongolia soon thereafter, and Mongolia continued as independent communist country under Soviet, not Chinese, guidance until breakup of U.S.S.R. in 1989. Since 1989 – Mongolia on difficult road to market economy. Families have elected to abandon nomadic herding and permanently locate portable ger homes near Ulan Bator and search for paid employment.

45. E. Asia established two types of economic systems after WWII. Communist China, Mongolia, and N. Korea relied on central planning to set production goals and distribute goods. Japan, Taiwan and S. Korea, established state-aided market economies with assistance and support of U.S. and Europe - Government intervenes strategically to ensure certain economic sectors develop in healthy fashion. Japan, S. Korea, and Taiwan - Government intervention designed to enable export-led growth - relies heavily on production of manufactured goods for sale abroad. Differences among E. Asian countries diminished as China and Mongolia have set aside strict central planning and adopted reforms that rely more on market forces.

46. Except for Kyoto (spared because of historical and architectural significance), all Japan’s major cities were destroyed by U.S. - Hiroshima and Nagasaki leveled by American nuclear weapons, and Tokyo destroyed with incendiary bombs. Key to Japan’s rapid recovery was state-aided market economy - government guided private investors in creating new manufacturing industries. Government-engineered trade and labor arrangements produced explosive economic growth - 10% or more annually between 1950 and 1970s. Leading sectors were export-oriented automobile and electronics manufacturing.

47. Two major innovations in manufacturing boosted productivity and diffused to other industrial economies. Just-in-time system - Clusters together companies that are part of same production process so they can deliver parts to each other when needed. Kaizen system - Continuous improvement in manufacturing and business management - production lines constantly surveyed for errors … helps ensure fewer defective parts are produced.

48. Communist economic systems transformed poverty-ridden China, Mongolia, and N. Korea. Private property abolished - state took full control of economy - transformed life for poor majority, but ultimately proved less resilient and successful than was hoped. “Iron rice bowl” in China - Guaranteed nearly everyone job for life, sufficient food, basic health care, and housing - better than what they had before. Drawback - overall productivity remained low.

49. Following WWII - Agricultural reform program joined small landholders together into cooperatives - could pool labor and resources to increase production. Communes were inefficient and created devastating food scarcities, but did eventually result in stable food supply that kept Chinese people well fed. N. Korea - Communists pushed military strength at expense of broader economic development - agriculture so neglected that production is precarious. Mongolia - Communist policy followed Soviet model of collectivization but tailored to Mongolia’s economy (was largely one of herding and agriculture).

50. Communist leadership in China, N. Korea, and Mongolia believed investment in heavy industry would dramatically raise living standards. Vast majority of population remained impoverished ag. laborers who received little benefit from industries that created jobs mainly in urban areas. Not enough attention paid to producing consumer goods that would have driven modest internal economic growth and improved living standards for rural poor. Effort to address regional disparities - Policy of investment from central government and development of regional self-sufficiency (each region encouraged to develop as independent entity with ag. and industrial sectors - create jobs and produce food and basic necessities).

51. 1980s - China’s leaders enacted market reforms that changed country’s economy in five ways: Government used state-owned banking system to direct investment into export-oriented manufacturing industries. Responsibility system: Decentralization of economic decision making returned ag. decision-making to farm household level, subject to approval of commune. Market reforms allowed existing and newly established businesses to sell produce and goods in competitive markets. Regional specialization: Encouragement of specialization in order to take advantage of regional variations in climate, natural resources, and location. Government allowed foreign direct investment in Chinese export- oriented enterprises and sale of foreign products in China.

53. Chinese economy remained robust after recession - largely because domestic purchasing power and consumption increased and diminished dependence on shaky Western economies … outlook for most Chinese workers still positive. By 2012, foreign banks owned 35% of U.S. public debt - of that 35%, Chinese and Japanese banks owned 42% (about U.S.$2.3 trillion). China and Japan lent money partly to ensure that consumers in U.S. would continue to buy their goods. In recent years, China’s lending to developing countries has outpaced even that of the World Bank - often loans are made in return for guarantees that recipient country will supply China with needed industrial materials, especially fossil fuels.

56. Chinese Communist Party officially claims China is a democracy. Some elections have long been held at village level and within Communist Party, but … Representatives to National People’s Congress (highest legislative body) are appointed by Communist Party elite, who maintain tight control throughout all levels of government. Informed consumers and environmentalists in developed countries have long criticized China for “no holds barred” pursuit of economic growth. 2008 Olympics in Beijing highlighted issues that created impetus for increasing democracy - International media spotlight on human rights abuses of workers, protesters, prisoners, ethnic minorities such as Tibetans and Uygurs, and spiritual groups.

58. Since 1949, China’s central government has controlled news media. By 2012, over 500 million (40% of pop.) were connected to Internet. Internet access not evenly distributed - huge digital divide. “Connected China,” mostly in large coastal cities, and “disconnected China” in rural interior.

60. Internet in China is not open forum that it is in most Western countries. Starting in 2013, Chinese Internet users required to register actual names when using an online account = attempt by government to monitor free speech and anonymous criticisms against party officials. “Great Firewall” aided by U.S. technology firms (e.g., Yahoo and Microsoft), which allow Chinese government to use software that blocks access to certain Web sites. Google in dispute with Chinese government over state-sponsored censorship, invasion of human rights activists’ email accounts, and cyber attacks - has moved operations to Hong Kong, where more freedom is allowed.

61. People are increasingly joining interest groups that pressure government to take action on particular problems. Internet has emerged as tool for collective action. In effort to maintain control over China’s protestors, government has allowed elections to be held for “urban residents’ committees” - seems to provide peaceful outlet for voicing frustrations and creating limited change at local level.

62. Government that played central role during post–WWII rise of Japanese economy was controlled from 1955-2009 by one political party [Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)]. Long led to criticism that Japan is lacking a meaningful democracy. 2009 - Japanese people elected government led by opposition party [Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ)], only to reverse course again and bring LDP back to power in 2012.

64. China has undergone most massive urbanization in world history. Since 1980, urban pop. has more than tripled - now nearly 700 million. Despite rapid growth, urbanites represent only 51% of China’s total pop., so more growth is likely. In every other country in region, majority of population has been urban for at least two decades.

65. Patterns of public and private investment that accompany urbanization have led to rural areas lagging behind urban areas in access to jobs and income, education, and medical care. Rural–urban GDP disparities are less extreme in NE and coastal provinces than in interior and western provinces. Rural-to-urban disparity patterns are found in all other countries in East Asia, including North Korea.

66. China selected 5 coastal cities as sites where foreign technology and management could be imported to China and free trade established - special economic zones (SEZs) operate like EPZs found in other world regions. Today SEZs and ETDZs (economic and technology development zones) are China’s greatest growth poles (their development is drawing investment and migration). Several of China’s SEZs and ETDZs are located in close proximity to Hong Kong - Because so much of investment comes from Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, Hong Kong is important regional financial hub.

68. Urban landscape has been remade by construction of more than 1000 business and residential skyscrapers, subway lines and stations, highway overpasses, and bridges and tunnels. Suburban development linked to Shanghai’s economic boom is gobbling up farmland, and displaced farmers have rioted. Pudong (new financial center for city) sits across Huangpu River from the Bund— Shanghai’s famous, elegant row of big brownstone buildings that served as financial capital of China until half a century ago.

70. Low birth rates … fewer young people being added to population. Improved living conditions … people are living longer across East Asia. Mongolia, S. Korea, N. Korea, and Taiwan - Will be several decades before financial and social costs of supporting numerous elderly people will have to be addressed. China faces serious future problems with elder care because one-child policy and urbanization drastically reduced family kin-groups. Japan has large elderly population that requires support and reduced number of young people to do the job.

71. Japan has negative rate of natural increase (-0.2) - lowest in East Asia and on par with Europe. By 2055, 40% of pop. will be over 65, presenting a dramatic future shortfall in labor. Immigration is one solution, but Japan is investing heavily in robotics technology to assist elderly and automate industry.

72. China has had one-child-per-family policy since 1979 - enforced with rewards for complying and with large fines for not complying. If the one-child family pattern continues, China’s pop. will start to shrink between 2025-2050, creating many of same economic and social problems Japan is now facing. One-child family created problem of two aging parents left to fend for themselves (often in rural, underdeveloped areas) for every migrant. One-child policy transformed Chinese families and society - an only child has no siblings, so within two generations, kinship categories of brother, sister, cousin, aunt, and uncle have disappeared from most families … any individual has very few, if any, related age peers with whom to share family responsibilities.

73. 113 boys for every 100 girls born in China - for nearly every category until age 70, males outnumber females. 50 million more men than women in China. Anecdotes of girls being raised secretly or disguised as boys. Girls given up for international adoption more often than boys. Girls may die in early infancy, either through neglect or infanticide. Some parents use medical tests to identify sex of a fetus … some choose to abort a female fetus. Preference for sons persists elsewhere in East Asia.

75. China had estimated deficit of 11 million women aged 20 to 35 in 2012. Females effectively “missing” from marriage rolls because many educated young women are too busy with career success to meet eligible young men. At least 10% of young Chinese men will fail to find a mate; and poor, rural, uneducated men will have greatest difficulty. Shortage of women will lower birth rate further. China’s growing millions of single young men are emerging threat to civil order - may be more prone to drug abuse, violent crime, HIV infection, and sex crimes. Kidnapping and forced prostitution of young girls and women are increasing.

76. China’s 1.35 billion people = more than 1/5 of world’s population. 90% clustered on approximately 1/6 of total land area suitable for agriculture, and roughly 1/2 of these live in urban areas. Population Distribution

78. Most countries in E. Asia have one dominant ethnic group, but all have considerable cultural diversity. China – 93% of Chinese citizens call themselves “people of the Han.” China’s non-Han minorities are about 117 million people in more than 55 different ethnic or culture groups scattered across country.

79. Muslim groups have long been prominent minorities in China – originally of Central Asian origin – historically nomadic herders or specialized in trading. Concentrated in China’s NW - think of themselves as separate from mainstream China. Uygurs and Kazakhs in autonomous region of Xinjiang in NW. Some areas with large minority populations designated autonomous regions - minorities theoretically manage their own affairs. Beijing government claims oil, other mineral resources, and irrigable agricultural land for national development - sent troops and millions of Han settlers to Xinjiang through “Go West” policy. Hui - Descended from Turkic Muslim traders who traveled Silk Road from Europe across Central Asia to Kashgar (now Kashi) and on to Xian. Subgroups of Hui live in Ningxia Huizu Autonomous Region and throughout northern, western, and SW China.

80. During imperial era (prior to 20th century), Tibet maintained own government but faced constant threat of invasion and Chinese meddling in its affairs. 1949–1950 - Chinese Communist army “liberated” Tibet, promising “one- country, two-systems” structure - suggested great deal of regional self- governance. 1959 - Tibetan uprising led China to abolish Tibetan government and violently reorder Tibetan society. Chinese government suppressed Tibetan Buddhism. By 1990s - Beijing government’s strategy was to overwhelm Tibetans with secular social and economic modernization and with Han Chinese settlers rather than outright military force.

81. The Beijing-Tibet Railway

82. Yunnan Province in southern China - More than 20 groups of ancient native peoples live in remote mountains that stretch into SE Asia - speak many different languages, and have cultural and language connections to indigenous people of Tibet, Burma, Thailand, or Cambodia. Taiwan and adjacent islands - Han account for 95% of pop., but Taiwan is home to 60 indigenous minorities. Some have cultural characteristics that indicate strong connection to ancient cultures in SE Asia and the Pacific. Han not homogenous in Taiwan - Divided into subgroups based on ancestral home in China, and people (and their descendants) who fled to Taiwan around time of establishment of People’s Republic of China in 1949 (often called “mainlanders”).

83. Several indigenous minorities in Japan - most have suffered considerable discrimination. Ainu - Characterized by light skin, heavy beards, and thick, wavy hair. About 30,000-50,000 Ainu - racially and culturally distinct group thought to have migrated thousands of years ago from northern Asian steppes 2008 - Japanese parliament officially recognized Ainu as indigenous minority.

84. Trade was first impetus for Chinese emigration. Early merchants, artisans, sailors, and laborers came mainly from SE coastal provinces - some settled permanently on peninsulas and islands of Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Philippines. Quintessential Overseas Chinese state in SE Asia is Singapore – 77% of pop. is ethnically Chinese. 19 th century - Economic hardship in China and growing international demand for labor spawned migration of as many as 10 million Chinese people to countries all over the world. By middle of 20 th century, others fleeing repression of China’s Communist Revolution joined those from earlier migration.