1. CHAPTER 10 Premodern Humans

2. Chapter Outline  When, Where and What  Premodern Humans of the Middle Pleistocene  A Review of Middle Pleistocene Evolution  Middle Pleistocene Culture

3. Chapter Outline  Neandertals: Premodern Humans of the Late Pleistocene  Culture of Neandertals  Molecular Connections: Genetic Evidence  Seeing Close Human Connections: Understanding Premodern Humans

4. Focus Question  What does it mean to be human?  How do premodern humans complicate this question?

5. The Pleistocene  The Pleistocene, often called the Ice Age, was marked by advances and retreats of massive continental glaciations.  At least 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances have been documented in Europe.  Hominins were impacted as the climate, flora, and animal life shifted.

6. Middle Pleistocene  The portion of the Pleistocene epoch beginning 780,000 ya and ending 125,000 ya.

7. Late Pleistocene  The portion of the Pleistocene epoch beginning 125,000 ya and ending approximately 10,000 ya.

8. Glaciations  Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover much of the northern continents.  Glaciations are associated with colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern latitudes, most notably in Africa.

9. Interglacials  Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets are retreating, eventually becoming much reduced in size.  Interglacials in northern latitudes are associated with warmer temperatures, while in southern latitudes the climate becomes wetter.

10. Changing Pleistocene Environments in Africa

11. Changing Pleistocene Environments in Eurasia  Changing migration routes.

12. Dispersal of Middle Pleistocene Hominins  Europe becomes more permanently and densely occupied  Mostly remained in areas previously occupied by Homo erectus

13. Middle Pleistocene Hominins: Terminology  Premodern humans  Transitional mix of ancestral and derived characteristics  Homo heidelbergensis  Paleospecies name for group that likely gave rise to Homo sapiens and Neandertals

14. Middle Pleistocene Hominins  Widely distributed in Africa, Asia and Europe, replacing earlier hominins in previously exploited habitats (or coexisting as in Southeast Asia)  Exhibit several H. erectus characteristics  Large face, projected brows, low forehead, and thick cranial vault  Increased brain size, rounded braincase, vertical nose, and reduced occipital

15. Homo heidelbergensis Skull From Zambia  The Kabwe (Broken Hill) Homo heidelbergensis skull from Zambia.  Note the robust browridges.

16. Bodo Cranium  The earliest evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa.  Possibly defleshed with stone tools.

17. Timeline of Middle Pleistocene Hominins

18. Europe  Gran Dolina finds in northern Spain may represent H. heidelbergensis, possibly dating to 850,000 ya  Atapuerca site of Sima de los Huesos remains of at least 28 individuals date to 600,000-530,000 ya (represent 80% of all Middle Pleistocene hominin remains in the world)

19. Asia  Dali fossils display H. erectus and H. sapiens traits, cranial capacity of 1120 cm 3  Jinniushan, northeast China, 200,000 ya and cranial capacity appx 1260 cm 3  Many Chinese researchers have argued evidence suggests regional continuity to modern populations

21. Middle Pleistocene Culture  The Acheulian technology of H. erectus carried into the Middle Pleistocene with little change until near the end of the period, when it became slightly more sophisticated.  Some later premodern humans in Africa and Europe invented the Levallois for controlling flake size and shape.  This suggests increased cognitive abilities in later premodern populations.

22. The Levallois Technique

23. Middle Pleistocene Culture  Premodern human populations continued to live in caves and open-air sites, but they may have increased their use of caves.  Chinese archaeologists insist that many Middle Pleistocene sites in China contain evidence of human-controlled fire.

24. Middle Pleistocene Culture  Researchers found concentrations of bones, stones, and artifacts at several sites suggesting that Middle Pleistocene hominids built temporary structures.  There is also evidence that they exploited different food sources, fruits, vegetables, fish, seeds, nuts, and bird eggs, each in its own season.  They also exploited marine life, a new innovation in human evolution.

25. Middle Pleistocene Culture  Researchers have found little evidence supporting widely practiced advanced hunting.  However, in 1995 wood spears were found at the Schöningen site in Germany.  These were most likely used as throwing spears to hunt large animals.  The bones of numerous horses were also recovered at Schöningen.

26. Neandertals: Premodern Humans of the Late Pleistocene  Neandertals are increasingly placed by researchers into a separate species: Homo neanderthalensis.  Brain Size: Larger than H. sapiens today (1520 cm 3 compared to 1300-1400 cm 3 (perhaps adapted to cold climate).  Cranium: Large, long, low, and bulging at the sides.  Structure: Robust, barrel-chested, and powerfully muscled with shorter limbs than modern H. sapiens.

30. La Chapelle-aux-Saints Skull  Note the occipital bun, projecting face, and low vault.

31. St. Césaire  St. Césaire, among the “last” Neandertals.

32. Upper Paleolithic  A cultural period usually associated with modern humans, but also found with some Neandertals, and distinguished by technological innovation in various stone tool industries.  Best known from western Europe, similar industries are also known from central and eastern Europe and Africa.

33. Time Line for Neandertal Fossil Discoveries

34. Krapina Cranium  Lateral view showing characteristic Neandertal traits (a) and three-quarters view (b).

35. Chatelperronian  Pertaining to an Upper Paleolithic industry found in France and Spain, containing blade tools and associated with Neandertals.  Suggestive of some cultural hybridization

36. Excavation of the Tabun Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel

37. Shanidar Cave  In Shanidar cave, in the Zagros Mountains of northeastern Iraq, fieldworkers found partial skeletons of nine individuals, four of them deliberately buried.  Shanidar 1 is a skeleton of a male who lived to be 30 to 45 years old, a very old age for prehistoric human.  His height is estimated at 5 feet 7 inches, and his cranial capacity is 1,600 cm3.  He had injuries that made it impossible to perform normal activities leading researches to believe he must have been helped by others.

38. Shanidar 1  Could he represent Neandertal compassion for the disabled?

39. Central Asia  Teshik-Tash site in Usbvekistan remains of Neandertal child associated with tools of the Mousterian industry  Southern Siberia remains DNA evidence of Neandertal genetic pattern  Nuclear DNA confirms

40. Surprising Connections: Another Contemporary Hominin?  Denisova Cave, southern Siberia  Finger bone and tooth dated to 50,000-30,000 ya  Mitochondrial DNA shows significant genetic distance from both Homo sapiens and Neandertals

41. Culture of Neandertals  Neandertals improved previous techniques by inventing a new variation, Mousterian.  They trimmed a flint nodule around the edges to form a disk-shaped core.  Each time they struck the edge, they produced a flake, continuing until the core became too small and was discarded.  They then trimmed the flakes into various forms, such as scrapers, points, and knives.

42. Mousterian  Pertaining to the stone tool industry associated with Neandertals and some modern H. sapiens groups; also called Middle Paleolithic.  This industry is characterized by a larger proportion of flake tools than is found in Acheulian tool kits.

44. Subsistence  Remains of animal bones demonstrate that Neandertals were successful hunters.  Used close-proximity spears for hunting (spear thrower and bow and arrow weren’t invented until the Upper Paleolithic).  Patterns of trauma in Neandertal remains match those of contemporary rodeo performers, indicating close proximity to prey.

45. Speech and Symbolic Behavior  Prevailing consensus has been that Neandertals were capable of articulate speech.  Even if Neandertals did speak, they did not have the same language capabilities of modern Homo sapiens.

46. Burials  Neanderthals buried their dead.  Their burials included grave goods like animal bones and stone tools.  They placed the bodies of their dead in a flexed position.

47. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Tool Technology Numerous flake tools; few highly specialized; use of bone, antler, or ivory very rare; few tools with more than one or two parts Many varieties of stone tools; many for specialized functions; frequent use of bone, antler, and ivory; many tools comprised of two or more component parts

48. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Hunting Efficiency and Weapons No long-distance hunting weapons; close-proximity weapons used Use of spear-thrower and bow and arrow; wider range of social contacts, perhaps larger, more organized hunting parties (including game drives)

49. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Stone Material Transport Stone materials transported only short distances Stone tool raw materials transported over longer distances, implying wider social networks and perhaps trade

50. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Art Uncommon; probably mostly personal; some items misinterpreted as “art”; others may be intrusive from overlying Upper Paleolithic contexts; cave art absent Artwork more common, transportable objects as well as elaborate cave art; well executed, using a variety of materials and techniques; stylistic sophistication

51. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Burial Deliberate burial at several sites; graves unelaborated; graves frequently lack artifacts Burials more complex, frequently including tools and remains of animals

52. Molecular Connections: The Genetic Evidence  Tremendous advances in past 15 years in sequencing Neandertal mitochondrial and nuclear DNA  Modern human populations outside of Africa possess1-4% of distinctive Neandertal DNA  Melanesian populations contain 4-5% of distinctive Denisovan DNA  Suggests interbreeding of premodern and modern populations

53. Phylogeny of Genus Homo - Very Modest Species Diversity

54. Phylogeny of genus Homo - Considerable Species Diversity

55. Why It Matters Question:  Why should knowing the full genome of Neandertals help us learn something important about ourselves?

56. Why It Matters Answer:  Much of what makes humans unique is coded in genes that have been altered by evolution in the last few hundred thousand years.  By looking at Neandertal DNA, we can see which genes have been modified.  We can then begin to explain the biological bases of human intelligence and even perhaps the nature of consciousness.

57. QUICK QUIZ

58. 1. The evolution of the genus Homo over the last two million years a) can be divided into at least three major transitions. b) has been fairly steady. c) has been uniform over the different geographic regions. d) can be clearly interpreted unlike the evolution of the Australopithecines.

59. Answer: a  The evolution of the genus Homo over the last two million years can be divided into at least three major transitions.

60. 2. With regard to the evolution of the genus Homo, most paleoanthropologists a) agree that two or three different species of archaic sapiens existed. b) agree that all members of the genus should be lumped into one species. c) agree that Homo erectus should also be included in the species sapiens. d) have differing opinions regarding the interpretation of the fossil material.

61. Answer: d  With regard to the evolution of the genus Homo, most paleoanthropologists have differing opinions regarding the interpretation of the fossil material.

62. 3. Paleoanthropologists study the sudden expansion of modern Homo sapiens. One problem they have is explaining what happened to the _________________.

63. Answer: Neandertals  Paleoanthropologists study the sudden expansion of modern Homo sapiens. One problem they have is explaining what happened to the Neandertals.

64. 4. Neandertals used fire routinely.  True  False

65. Answer: True  Neandertals used fire routinely.