1. Writing a Classical Argument
Chapter 13
Writing a Classical Argument

2. What is Argument? A classical argument involves two components:
Truth seeking: a responsible search for the best course of action or solution to a problem, taking into account all available information and points of view
Relax our certainties and be willing to change our views
Persuasion: the art of making a claim on an issue and justifying it convincingly so that the audience’s initial resistance to your position is overcome and they are moved toward your position
Be certain in our claims and get others to change their views

3. Process and Product
Process: and argument is an act of inquiry characterized by fact-finding, information gathering, and consideration of alternative points of view
Produce: someone’s contribution to the conversation, a formal speech, or a written position paper
As a process, the goal of an argument is to seek the truth
As a product, the goal of an argument is persuasion

4. Stages of Argument Development
Personal opinion: the beginning of an argument consists of expressing strong personal opinions without being able to justify them or support them with facts
Claim supported by one or more reasons: an argument consisting of reasons and evidence
Increased attention to truth seeking: more engaged with various views, have conducted research and evaluated alternate perspectives; willing to change position

5. Stages cont.
Articulate assumptions within argument: able to identify and analyze assumptions and support them
Link your argument to the beliefs of your audience: adapt structure and tone of argument based on the resistance level of the audience

6. Creating an Argument Frame
Find an arguable issue: an issue that invites more than one reasonable answer which can lead to a disagreement
Excludes personal taste issues, for example: baseball is more fun than soccer
Question can be framed as a yes/no choice or more openly, inviting different possible answers: What should we do? How should we do it?
State your claim: what position are you taking on this issue?
See examples on pg 314

7. Argument Frame cont.
Articulate reasons: your claim needs to be supported by reasons and evidence
A reason is a sub-claim that supports your main claim.
Your reason is linked to your claim through connecting words such as because, therefore, so, consequently, and thus
Examples on page
In small groups, complete the activity on page 315

8. Underlying Assumptions
Every time you make a claim with a reason, you make a silent assumption that may need to be articulated and examined. See example on page 316.
Examine your underlying assumption in order to be sure your audience will accept it. If not, you need to make it explicit and support it
As a class, do activity on pg. 317

9. Effective Use of Evidence
Each of your reasons need to be supported either by sub arguments or by evidence
Evidence includes facts, examples, summaries, statistics, testimony, or other relevant data that will persuade your readers to accept your reasons
Evidence is not the same as proof. Evidence presents the best case for your claim without purporting to be the whole truth
Go through types of evidence on pages

10. The STAR Criteria
It is often difficult to create arguments in which all of your evidence fully meets the STAR criteria. See example on page 320
Sufficiency: is there enough evidence?
Typicality: are the chosen data representative and typical?
Accuracy: are the data accurate and current?
Relevance: are the data relevant to the claim?

11. Addressing Objections & Counterarguments
Anticipating objections-imagine how your readers might object to your reasons and/or underlying assumption
Question yourself on how others might interpret your claim, put yourself in their shoes
How would a reader object to my reason?
How could a reader object to my underlying assumption?

12. Responding to Counterarguments
First, summarize the objection or counterargument fairly
Next, decide how you are going to respond to it: are you going to refute it or concede to it?
If you refute an argument, you analyze its shortcomings and explain why it’s not a valid objection
If you concede to an argument, acknowledge that the objection is fair and that the claim is complex; then be sure to shift attention back to your claim with more supporting evidence

13. Qualifying Your Claim
Limit the scope or focus of a claim to make it less sweeping and therefore less vulnerable.
See examples on page 325
Limit your claim with qualifiers such as: perhaps, often, probably, maybe, generally, usually, sometimes, likely, etc.

14. Seeking Audience Based Reasons
Reasons that depend on underlying assumptions, values, or beliefs that your targeted audience already holds.
When formulating your claim and reasons, be aware of what people already think of your claim
Seek audience based reasons whenever possible, this will make it easier for you to support your claim and have it accepted by your readers

15. Ethos & Pathos
Ethos: present yourself as credible and trustworthy. In order for your audience to accept your claim, they must see you as knowledgeable, trustworthy, and fair
Convince your audience that you know your subject matter
Use evidence responsibly
Be fair to alternate views
Search and share values and assumption
Show that you care about your subject and why your readers should too

16. Ethos & Pathos cont. Pathos: appeal to your reader’s emotions
Include storylike anecdotes
Choose words with emotional or value-laden connotations
Use vivid language
If allowed, use visuals

17. Structure of a Classical Argument Paper
Introduction
Hook
Explanation of issue and needed background
Thesis (claim)
Forecasting passage
Although statement
Connecting words

18. Structure cont. Presentation of writer’s position
Main body of essay
Presents and supports each reason in turn
Each reason is tied to a value or belief held by the audience
Summary of opposing views
Response to opposing views
Refutes or concedes
Shows weakness in opposing views
May concede to some strengths in opposing views

19. Structure cont. Conclusion Brings essay to close Sums up argument
Leaves strong, lasting impression
Calls for action

20. Generating Ideas Make a list of communities you belong to
Family, campus, dorm
Brainstorm contested issues in those communities
Explore possible causes for disagreement
Explore your own point of view
Determine amount of research needed
Choose your issue and begin research
Brainstorm claims and reasons on various sides of the issue

21. Shaping & Drafting Analyze your audience
How much do they know about your issue?
What is your audience’s current attitude towards your issue?
How do your audience’s values and beliefs differ from your own?
What values and beliefs do you share with your audience?