1. Investigative Geography Purpose and Aim: To enable the learner to understand how to plan and carry out geographical enquiries, how to present data, and to review and interpret evidence.

2. There are several stages to an investigation  Stage 1: Decide on a hypothesis, determine data required considering sampling issues and assess risks associated with fieldwork.  Stage 2: Use sampling techniques, undertake fieldwork to collect primary data and utilise secondary data sources.  Stage 3: Produce diagrams, graphs and maps.  Stage 4: Describe data collected, analyse data collected identifying patterns and anomalies, draw and justify conclusions, evaluate the methods and sequences of the enquiry, evaluate the data collected and evaluate the conclusions drawn.

3. For this unit you only have one assignment – a report on your investigation There are 4 sections to your report: 1.Introduction 2.Data Collection 3.Data Presentation 4.Interpretation and Evaluation It is important that you refer to your report checklist to make sure that you have included everything in each section.

4. Identifying a Suitable Geographical Theme (or question) and Hypothesis for Investigation. But what is a hypothesis?  Your investigation is based on the River Clywedog in Wrexham and you are going to investigate how the characteristics of the river change with distance from source.  So your investigation title is: ‘How does the River Clywedog, Wrexham change with distance from source?’  A hypothesis is an idea that you then test through study or investigation. It is written as a STATEMENT rather than a question…for example ‘load size decreases with distance from source of the River Clywedog.’ You will need several hypotheses to test in your investigation.

5. Clearly defined hypothesis of a geographical nature  Your hypothesis should either:  Investigate spatial or non-spatial differences; or  Examine the relationships between variables.  E.g. ‘Shingle beaches are steeper that sand beaches’ or ‘The frequency with which shoppers purchase goods and services is inversely related to journey times from the shoppers’ place of residence to the market centre.’

6. Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis  What is the difference between the two? (You only really need a null hypothesis if you are going to be doing some statistical testing…which you are!)  Example of a HYPOTHESIS – sediment size in a river will decrease with an increase in velocity.  Example of the NULL HYPOTHESIS to go with this – there will be no decrease in sediment size in a river with an increase in velocity. Remember – a hypothesis is written as a STATEMENT

7. Basing questions on wider theories, ideas, concepts or processes.  THEORY – a set of statements or principles that have been tested and proved valid e.g. the Bradshaw Model. From this model we can identify how certain characteristics of a river change with distance downstream…we can then test these changes in an investigation.  Sometimes a topic for enquiry does not have a formal theory. However, it can still be a valid topic if it is supported by a detailed understanding of the processes involved. For example – glacial processes, river processes, coastal processes. These are all valid topics yet often do not have an official ‘theory’.

8. Turning a topic into a question or hypothesis MAKE SURE THAT YOUR TITLE IS SMART! S imple – not a multiple set of tasks. Stick to one question/hypothesis. M easurable – can you actually collect data? You need to be able to analyse something! A chievable – in the place chosen and in the time available with the resources/equipment that you have. Realistic – can you actually answer the question? Don’t choose a question that will be difficult to prove. T imed – how long will it take? Remember this is an A level study so don’t choose an investigation that will take a year, or needs to be repeated multiple times.

9. What are your hypotheses?  Velocity increases with distance from source.  Cross-sectional area increases with distance from source.  As the width of the river increases so does the depth.  There is no increase in the depth of the River Clywedog with an increase in width.

10. Primary and secondary data PRIMARY DATASECONDARY DATA This is new data which has not previously been collected or processed. All data collected first hand through fieldwork are primary data. This is information available in published documents. Anything that has already been analysed or interpreted is secondary data.

11. Types of Primary Data OBSERVATIONMEASUREMENTINTERVIEWS

12. QUANTITATIVE DATA Actual numbers collected, data produced can be used in statistical analysis. It is objective and should be value-free. QUALITATIVE DATA Any data that is not in numerical form, e.g. field sketches, interviews. It is a subjective description which varies depending on who is recording it.

13. With a partner, think of as many different sources of secondary data as you can?

14. Types of secondary data TextbooksMaps Internet articles Processed census data REMEMBER ALL SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA MUST BE ACKNOWLEDGED IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERENCE SECTION OF YOUR INVESTIGATION.

15. MAPS Topography (contour lines) – hills/valleys, slopes, settlements, populations, water courses, distances can be measured Land use – urban, rural, specific focus – CBD Geology – rock types, soils, Ice Age drift deposits Age of map – maps can trace how land changes

16. BOOKS and JOURNALS Previous research and findings May detail data collection methods and techniques (important to replicate if you are looking to make comparisons) General background (history, where to stay, best sites, climate, problems etc)

17. TECHNOLOGY Internet – desk study “apps” – desk study During investigation/data collection e.g. data loggers Mobile – can now access internet in remote areas Accuracy - GPS

18. INTERNET Great collection of data Careful searches required Reliable v Unreliable sources/sites Very cheap and easy to do!

19. DataData Collection - SAMPLING Could you measure all of these pebbles? Or interview all of these tourists? Maybe identify all the different plant species in this meadow? ….and what would you do with this lot?

20. ISSUES WITH SAMPLING – WHEN RESULTS BECOME BIASED The data from which a sample is taken is biased e.g. people from a telephone directory (why would this be biased?) Choice of sample may be unfair – is the number in each category representative or do you have too many old/young/men/women? Time the sample was taken may produce bias (how?) A sample which is too large could give too many results to handle

21. HOW LARGE A SAMPLE SIZE SHOULD YOU HAVE? The size of the sample will usually be directed by the time and resources available. It should be as large as possible but should also be balanced with quality (detail) At least 30 samples should be considered in order to be able to draw valid conclusions

22. TYPES OF SAMPLING - Simple Random Sampling a type of probability sampling where each sampling location is equally likely to be selected and the selection of one location does not influence which is selected next. In statistical terms, the sampling locations are independent and identically distributed Like the lottery draws!

23. Simple Random Sampling an example A forest of trees. there are 24 trees in the sampling universe (the forest) number each tree (1-24) put numbers in a hat pick one The tree corresponding to the number is now part of your sampling subset. Each number (that is, each tree) is equally likely to get picked and picking one number doesn't change the probability that another number will get picked next time

24. Stratified Sampling (strata = layers) Stratification means dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling. The strata should be mutually exclusive: every element in the population must be assigned to only one group. The strata should also be collectively exhaustive: no population element can be excluded. Then random or systematic sampling is applied within each group.

25. Stratified Sampling an example Proportionate allocation/Quota sampling sampling fraction in each of the strata that is proportional to that of the total population. If the population consists of 60% in the male stratum and 40% in the female stratum, then the relative size of the two samples (6 M and 4 F) should reflect this proportion

26. Stratified Sampling by questionnaires Ever been asked “what’s your age?” before completing a questionnaire? They do NOT ask every single person in Wales a proportionate allocation is used This is a sampling method in which a sample is selected by quotas from each defined portion of the population. 5% of the total population are aged 16-18, so 5% of your sample must be from this subgroup

27. Stratified Sampling: Visitors at Llandudno – who do you ask to complete your questionnaire?

28. Some other techniques: SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING Every 10 th person going into a supermarket is sampled Measurements taken at 1m intervals Belt/Line/Linear/transect eg. Along a stretch of river Grid sample To cover a big area fast

29. Systematic Linear Sampling (Transects)

30. Do you want to sample in a LINE between two points – a TRANSECT Simply take measurements all along your line

31. Pragmatic Sampling Sampling where you can! Takes into account factors such as: accessibility (private/public land) Safety Based on practical rather than theoretical considerations.

32. How can sample size affect the reliability of data? RELIABILITY: THE EXTENT TO WHICH SAMPLE DATA REFLECTS THE TOTAL POPULATION. It is possible through poor choice of sampling method or insufficient evidence to achieve a result which is unrepresentative of the area in question. For example, taking samples at different times of the day, week, month in a river survey could lead to a distortion of results.

33. Sampling locations You will use a structured/pragmatic approach to selecting your sampling points along the course of the river. Equal number of sites at the upper and middle/lower sections of the river. This method involves selecting points that are of some distance apart and have safe access to the river (near to the road/accessible and parts that are not too deep or fast flowing). You could have used a systematic method. This would involve choosing sites that are of equal distance apart, but unfortunately some of these sites would have not been accessible or unsafe to take readings. *This method will be used when taking depth measurements. Another sampling method you could have used is the random method. This method involves selecting sites using a ‘random number table’. This method also could not be used as it may have ended up choosing sites all near the mouth or near the source and you wanted to spread your sites along the course of the river. Sampling in your investigation

34. The final part of the planning process is an appreciation of potential risks in undertaking the research, and methods of minimising the risk. PILOT STUDY Check that the area is safe. Identify suitable locations for data collection. Practice data collection techniques. Check the reliability and validity of results. Check that equipment is working Check that you can gain access. Reveal deficiencies in the design of proposed investigation. These can then be addressed before time and resources are expended on the larger scale study.

37. HAZARD/RISKLIKELIHOOD (1-5 HIGH) SEVERITY (1-5 HIGH) TOTAL RISK (LIKLIHOOD x SEVERITY MANAGEMENT