1. B121 Chapter 7 Investigative Methods

2. Quantitative data & Qualitative data Quantitative data It describes measurable or countable features of whatever has been investigated Qualitative data Refers to intangible qualities or features.

3. Selecting your sample Sampling is helpful to us because we can investigate a sample of a larger population in order to learn not just about the sample but about the population from which it was drawn. Random sampling Quota sampling

4. Collecting data Primary data – it is a data that you, or the investigator, have collected and which did not exist before. Secondary data – data that is already exist.

5. Public sources of information Libraries Printed information Computer databases Internet sources of information on organisation

6. Public sources of information Uses & advantages Public sources provide much of the information you need. Their use can contextualise your research. They can enable comparisons with other organisation to be made.

7. Public sources of information Problems & limitation Using public sources of information can be time consuming and costly. Searches can be fruitless. It can be difficult to assess what the information actually means for your organisation.

8. Internal documents They can provide useful information which can assist in tracking the history of a project or organisation. They consist of original proposals, letters, minutes of meetings, costing etc.

9. Internal documents Uses & advantages They are usually cheap and easy to obtain. They help you to understand why the activities or project have developed as they have. They counteract any tendency to evaluate activities against your own expectations rather than against those which were originally agreed.

10. Internal documents Problems & limitations Internal documents can be difficult and time- consuming to analyse. They can be limited in their capacity to give a rounded picture. The quality of the minutes of meetings can vary according to the ability of the minutes taker. Deficient filing system and archiving can leave significant gaps in the records.

11. Records or statistics It is a routine way of monitoring activities and performance. Uses & advantages Records can be reliable. They are controlled and implemented in- house. They make it easy to extract comparison over time and between events and activities.

12. Records or statistics Problems & limitations Record keeping can escalate into a resource-costly and bureaucratic obsession. Records may not reveal what really matters. Changes to the methods of keeping records can undermine comparison.

13. Surveys & questionnaires It is a technique in which a sample of the population is asked questions about the issues the investigator is interested in.

14. Surveys & questionnaires Uses & advantages Surveys are more likely to give results that are representative of population as whole than other interview or observation. Data can be compared against expectations and targets. When professionally administered – using short, clear questions – surveys can add credibility to your research. Postal surveys have low cost per person. Telephone surveys usually get a good response rate and are quicker that postal surveys.

15. Surveys & questionnaires Problems & limitations Response rates to postal questionnaires are nearly always low and therefore probably unrepresentative. You get answers only to the questions you have asked. Surveys results often lack the richness and subtlety it is possible to uncover other methods. Statistical knowledge are often needed to analyse the data.

16. Interviews They are generally face-to-face encounters between two or more people for the purpose of asking questions about satisfaction with products or services, establishing views, or suitability for employment. Formal interview Informal interview

17. Interviews Uses & advantages There is a good response rate They are good for handling complex issues. They can provide a cross-section of relevant stakeholder perspectives. They can be informative, yielding much more qualitative data.

18. Interviews Problems & limitations The average cost of interview is high. They are time consuming and costly to analyse. They are difficult to analyse without some bias. It can be hard to get honest answers.

19. Observing It is a way of collecting information without any form of intervention or manipulation. Uses & advantages It can be the only way to see things as they are. It can reveal realities and ways forward that are not evident to those intimately involved on a day-today basis.

20. Observing Problems & limitations It is time consuming It can be potentially intrusive and ethically problematic. It can be stressful It can be subjective. The observer can influence events.

21. Focus groups They are small groups, usually between five and twelve people, whose opinions are sought. Uses & advantages Useful in getting reactions to new policies. They are commonly used for seeking the views of a random selection of customers unknown to each other. They are relatively quick to organise.

22. Focus groups Problems and limitations If sampling methods are not used it is difficult to know how representative the groups is of the particular stakeholder group they are drawn from. Care needs to be taken that the moderators own views do not bias the group. Group dynamics can affaect peoples views so that members express views they usually don’t hold