1. Basic Learning Processes Robert C. Kennedy, PhD University of Central Florida robert.kennedy@ucf.edu

2. 12/7/15 Plan Ch 11 Generalization, Discrimination and Stimulus Control (part 2) Ch 12 Forgetting Exam discussion

3. Chapter 11: Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control (continued)

4. Chapter 11 Vocabulary Concept: Any class (i.e., group, category) the members of which share one or more defining features. The term may also be defined in terms of the tendency to respond in a particular way toward a particular class of stimuli. CS-: A stimulus that is not followed by a US. CS+: A stimulus that is reliably followed by a US. Differential outcomes effect (DOE): The finding that discrimination training proceeds more rapidly when different behaviors produce different reinforcers. Discrimination: The tendency for a behavior to occur in certain situations but not others. A variation of this is the tendency to respond in the presence of certain stimuli, but not in their absence. Discrimination training: Any procedure for establishing a discrimination. A distinction is made between Pavlovian and operant discrimination training. Discriminative stimulus: In operant discrimination training, any stimulus that signals either that a behavior will be reinforced (an S D ) or that it will not be reinforced (an S ∆ ). Some instructors object to the word signal, so the term may also be defined as a stimulus that reliably precedes reinforcement (an S D ) or non-reinforcement (an S ∆ ). In Pavlovian discrimination training, discriminative stimulus refers to a CS that is associated either with the appearance of a US (the CS+) or with its absence (the CS–).

5. Chapter 11 Vocabulary Errorless discrimination training: A form of discrimination training in which the S ∆ is introduced in very weak form for short periods and gradually presented at greater strength for longer periods. Excitatory gradient: In Spence’s theory of generalization and discrimination, a generalization gradient showing an increased tendency to respond to the S D or CS+ and stimuli resembling them. Generalization: The tendency for the effects of a learning experience to spread. In the case of stimulus generalization, this means that a behavior tends to occur in situations different from the one in which it was reinforced. Generalization gradient: Any graphic representation of generalization data. Inhibitory gradient: In Spence’s theory of generalization and discrimination, a gradient showing a decreased tendency to respond to the S ∆ or CS– and stimuli resembling them. Matching to sample: A discrimination training procedure in which the task is to select from two or more comparison stimuli the one that matches a sample. Mismatching: A variation of matching to sample in which reinforcement is available for selecting the comparison stimulus that is different from the sample.

6. Chapter 11 Vocabulary Oddity matching: Another term for mismatching. Peak shift: The tendency following discrimination training for the peak of responding to shift away from the S ∆ or CS–. S+: Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement. S – : Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the reinforcement is not available. S D : Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement contingent upon availability of an appropriate response. S ∆. : Symbol that signals the availability of reinforcement is not available and a response will not be effective in producing reinforcement (extinction stimulus). Stimulus discrimination training: A discrimination training procedure in which the S D and S ∆ are presented at the same time. Stimulus control: The tendency for a behavior to occur in the presence of an S D but not in the presence of an S ∆. Successive discrimination training: A discrimination training procedure in which the S D and S ∆ are presented one after the other in random sequence.

7. Discrimination Learning Discriminative stimulus - A stimulus that signals the availability or unavailability of reinforcement Discriminative operant - An operant behavior that is under the control of a discriminative stimulus. S D - A stimulus that indicates the availability of reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of an appropriate operant response. S Δ – A stimulus that indicates that reinforcement is unavailable and that the operant response will be ineffective.

8. Discrimination Learning To interact effectively with our environment, we must learn to discriminate the conditions that indicate reinforcement availability from the conditions that do not. Discrimination learning involves discovering not only when reinforcement is available or unavailable, but also when aversive events may or may not occur. Discrimination training: any procedure for establishing a discrimination Example: training a dog to salivate at the sound of a buzzer, but not at the sound of a bell Discriminative stimuli: stimuli that signal different consequences for a behavior -S + or S D indicate behavior will have reinforcing consequences -S - or S △ indicate behavior will not have reinforcing consequences Example: When lamp is on (S D) the rat presses the lever, but when the lamp is off (S △ )it does not press

9. Discrimination Paradigms Two-choice discrimination learning – A task when the S D and S Δ are on the same stimulus dimension. – Responding to the S D produces reinforcement or punishment, and choosing the S Δ leads to neither reinforcement nor punishment. – Sometimes the two are presented simultaneously, and sometime sequentially. – In this paradigm, they must choose to which to respond.

10. Two-choice discrimination learning Research shows that initially, subjects will respond to the S D and S Δ equally. With continued training, responding to the S D increases and responding to the S Δ declines.

11. Conditioned Discrimination Task  Conditioned discrimination A situation in which the availability of reinforcement to a particular stimulus depends upon the presence of a second stimulus. In some circumstances, a particular cue indicates that reinforcement is contingent on the occurrence of an appropriate response, whereas under other conditions, the cue does not signal reinforcement availability.

12. Behavioral Contrast Behavioral contrast – In a two-choice discrimination task, the increase in response to S D that occurs at the same time as responding to S Δ declines Local contrast – A change in behavior that occurs following a change in reinforcement contingency. The change in behavior fades with extended training. Sustained contrast – The long-lasting change in responding due to the anticipated change in the reinforcement contingency. – Also called anticipatory contrast

13. Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning The idea that conditioned excitation first develops to the S D, followed by the conditioning of inhibition to S Δ. Discrimination learning develops in 3 stages. – First, conditioned excitation develops to the S D as a result of reinforcement. – Second, nonreinforcement in the presence of the S Δ results in the development of conditioned inhibition to the S Δ. – Finally, the excitation and inhibition generalize to other stimuli.

14. The Aversive Character of S Δ – Terrace (1964) suggested that behavioral contrast is responsible for the heightened response seen with discrimination training. – Argued that exposure to the S Δ is an aversive event and that the frustration produced during S Δ periods increased the intensity of the response to other stimuli. – The effect of drugs that eliminate frustration induced behavior supports Terrace’s view.

15. Errorless discrimination learning – A training procedure in which the gradual introduction of S Δ leads to responding to S D without any errors to S Δ. – Some discriminations are more difficult to acquire than others. Pigeons can discriminate colors better than line tilt.

16. Nonaversive S Δ The behavioral characteristics found with standard discrimination training are not observed with errorless discrimination training. The peak shift does not appear. Drugs that inhibit frustration induced behaviors have no effect on responding to the S D. Demonstrates that S Δ is not aversive. Argues that with errorless discrimination, the S Δ does not develop inhibitory control; instead, subjects learn only to respond to S D.

17. Discrimination Oddity matching/mismatching: bird may be required to peck a disc that is different from the standard Errorless discrimination training: S △ is presented in weak form and for shorter and shorter periods

18. Discrimination Implications: -Helping dogs learn how to sniff out illegal drugs -Training rats to identify landmines through discriminating between explosives and other substances

19. Chapter 12: Forgetting

20. Forgetting Vocabulary Terms Autobiographical, or event, memory: Alternative names for episodic memory. Context: Stimuli present at learning that are not directly relevant to what is learned. Cue-dependent forgetting: Forgetting that results from the absence of cues that were present during training. Declarative memory: Memory of events that can be expressed, usually in words. Also called explicit memory. Declarative memories include semantic and episodic memories. Delayed matching to sample: A method of measuring forgetting in which the opportunity to match a sample follows a retention interval. Distributed practice: Practice sessions spread out over time. Also called spaced practice. Episodic memory: Memory for personally experienced events. Also called autobiographical or event memory. It is a kind of declarative memory. Extinction method: A method of measuring forgetting by comparing the rate of extinction after a retention interval with the rate of extinction immediately after training. Fluency: The rate of performance, typically the number correct per minute. (A measure of learning, it can also be used to measure forgetting.) Forgetting: Deterioration in learned behavior following a retention interval.

21. Forgetting Vocabulary Terms Free recall: A method of measuring forgetting that consists of providing the opportunity to perform the learned behavior. Some psychologists suggest that there is no such thing as free recall, since context cues and prompts are always involved in recall. Gradient degradation: A method of measuring forgetting in which a behavior is tested for generalization before and after a retention interval. A flattening of the generalization gradient indicates forgetting. Massed practice: Learning or practice sessions separated by little or no time. Typically the term refers to all of the time spent learning occurring in one session. Mnemonic: Any device for aiding recall. Typically they involve learning cues that will later prompt recall. Non-declarative memory: Memory of things that cannot be expressed. Non-declarative memories include Pavlovian conditioning and procedural memory. Also called implicit memory. Overlearning: Continuation of training beyond the point required to produce one errorless performance. Some instructors may object to the language “errorless performance,” since the standard for mastery may not always be zero errors. The phrase may be replaced with “satisfactory performance,” though that language is problematic because of its subjectivity.

22. Forgetting Vocabulary Terms Paired associate learning: A learning task involving pairs of words or other stimuli in which the subject is presented with the first item of a pair and is expected to produce the second item. Some authors, especially in decades past, have considered PA learning analogous to Pavlovian conditioning, but I believe most learning researchers today consider it an example of operant learning. Proactive interference: Forgetting caused by learning that occurred prior to the behavior in question. Procedural memory: Memory for procedures; the ability to perform a skill. It is a kind of non-declarative memory. Prompted, or cued, recall: A method of measuring forgetting in which hints (prompts) about the behavior to be performed are provided. Recognition: A method of measuring forgetting in which the subject is required to identify stimuli experienced earlier. Relearning method: A method of measuring forgetting in which a behavior is learned to criterion before and after a retention interval. Ebbinghaus was probably the first to use this method. Retention interval: A period during which learning or practice of a behavior does not occur. Retroactive interference: Forgetting caused by learning that occurred subsequent to the behavior in question. SAFMEDS: An acronym for a way to use flash cards. The letters stand for "say all fast minute each day shuffle." Savings method: Another name for the relearning method. Semantic memory: Knowledge of the world. It is a kind of declarative memory. State-dependent learning: Learning that depends on the physiological state (such as alcoholic intoxication) present during learning.

23. Forgetting Forgetting: a deterioration in performance of learned behavior following a retention interval Retention interval: a period during which learning or practice of the behavior does not occur Usually leads to a decrease in the probability of a behavior, but can also mean an increase in probability

24. Measuring forgetting Free recall: individual given opportunity to perform a previously learned behavior Example: student is required to learn the recipe for baking a cake and then is asked to recite it again after a period of time However, it is a crude way to measure forgetting Example: student cannot recall a French word he earlier studied, but he may be able to say things about the word such as number of syllables, word starts with letter “f”, etc.

25. Measuring forgetting Cued recall: another variation of the free recall technique -Present hints or prompts to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced -Relearning method: measures forgetting in terms of the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance -Recognition task: participant has to only identify the material previously learned

26. Measuring forgetting Delayed matching to sample: task is to select from two or more alternatives the stimulus that matches a standard, but prevented from performing following presentation of the sample Extinction method: put the behavior on extinction after a retention interval; forgetting occurs when extinction proceeds more rapidly than it would have immediately after training Gradient degradation: Forgetting can be measured as a flattening of a generalization gradient

27. Sources of forgetting The longer the interval between training and relearning, the greater the forgetting However, time itself may not cause forgetting

28. Sources of forgetting Degree of learning: the better something is learned, the more slowly it is forgotten Learning continues even after we seem to have achieved mastery (overlearning) Example: good indication of how well a person remembered Spanish 20-50 years after studying was how thoroughly he or she had learned it

29. Prior Learning Forgetting occurs rapidly when we learn unrelated words, random digits, and nonsense syllables More meaningful material is easier to remember Meaningfulness: related to the importance of prior learning Previous learning can reduce forgetting, but can also lead to interference with recall (proactive interference)

30. Prior learning Paired associated learning: typically, person lists word pairs so that when given the first word, the participant produces the second Example: hungry-cake. Think of word “hungry”, then think of the word “cake”.

31. Subsequent learning Retroactive interference: what we learn increases forgetting of previous learning Often studied by having people learn two or more lists of paired associates

32. Changes in context Context: stimuli present during learning that are not directly relevant to what is learned Changes in the context in which learning occurs may affect forgetting The context may offer cues that aid with recall; absence of cues may lead to performance decline (cue-dependent forgetting)

33. Changes in context Students learn list of words either when standing up or sitting down. Those who learn lists while standing up recall better when standing up; those who learn lists while sitting down remember better when sitting down

34. Applications Eyewitness testimony -Students more likely to report seeing a broken headlight if asked about “the” broken headlight than if asked about “a” broken headlight -Students report seeing broken glass more often if asked about cars “smashing” than if cars “hit” each other

35. Applications Learning to remember Overlearning Practice with feedback Distribute practice Test yourself Mnemonics Use context cues Take a problem solving approach

36. Next Class 12/14: EXAM 3 Exam #3: 12/14, 7pm, RIGHT HERE! Your overall exam grade for the class will be based on your two highest exam scores. – There are 3 possible exams – Your overall grade for exams will be based on an average of the 2 highest scores. – You need only take 2 of the exams – If you only take 2 exams, your overall exam grade will be based on those 2 – If you take all 3 exams, your lowest exam grade will be dropped, and your overall exam grade will still be based on the average of the highest 2 exam scores. – If you take all 3 exams, YOUR OVERALL EXAM GRADE WILL NOT CONSIDER THE LOWEST OF THE 3; only the 2 highest. 100 items/2 hours YOU MUST BRING BROWN SCANTRON Bring your student ID or other form of identification 100 items/2 hours