1. South Asia

2. subcontinent summer monsoon winter monsoon

3. Countries that make up region: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and its island territories. Countries occupy territory known as Asian subcontinent, - portion of tectonic plate that joined Eurasian continent nearly 60 million years ago. Subcontinent - Refers to entire Indian peninsula, including Nepal, Bhutan, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

6. Millions of years ago, Indian-Australian Plate broke free from eastern edge of Africa and drifted NE - Himalayas resulted from collision of plate with Eurasia. Three great rivers of South Asia - Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra - all begin within 100 mi (160 km) of one another in Himalayan highlands (near Tibet, Nepal, and India borders) - largely fed by glacial meltwater. South of Indo-Gangetic Plain is Deccan Plateau - modest uplands (1000–2000 ft [300–600 m] in elevation) interspersed with river valleys.

7. River valleys and coastal zones are densely occupied; uplands are only slightly less so. High degree of tectonic activity and deep crustal fractures … South Asia is prone to devastating earthquakes. Coastal areas are vulnerable to tidal waves (tsunamis) caused by undersea earthquakes.

8. Climate characterized by seasonal reversal of winds (monsoons) - affected by intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) - zone created when air masses moving south from N. Hemisphere and north from S. Hemisphere converge near equator. Summer monsoon begins every June when moist ITCZ air reaches mountainous western Ghats. Winter monsoon underway by November, when cooling Eurasian landmass sends cooler, drier, heavier air over South Asia. Monsoon rains deposit large amounts of moisture over Himalayas, much of it as snow and ice that add to existing mass of glaciers.

11. Humans have lived in South Asia for at least 50,000 years, but up to 1700 CE (before British colonization), population density and human environmental impacts were light. Large sections of S. Asia have lived with water scarcity for millennia. Ancient structures captured water during wet seasons. Above is a water storage tank at Mohenjo-daro in present-day Pakistan.

12. South Asia’s 3 largest rivers fed by glaciers in Himalayas … glacial melting is particular concern. Glaciers shrink … provide less water each year to recharge aquifers beneath heavily populated Indo-Gangetic plain. Water conservation and increased water storage needed for supplies to last through dry winter monsoon. Tens of millions of poor farmers and fishers live near sea level in South Asia, most in Bangladesh - more people vulnerable to sea level rise than any other country. Maldives Islands in Indian Ocean also vulnerable – 80% lie 1 m or less above sea level.

13. Per capita domestic water consumption tends to be lower for the poor. Consumption increases as incomes rise - middle and upper classes consume close to 13 gallons per day, or more … As more South Asians join middle class, they will consume more water per capita. Water for production of agricultural and industrial products is drawn from supplies so scarce that ordinary citizens often must survive on less water than is considered healthy. In dry regions, water for crops and industry frequently drawn down faster than naturally replenished … not sustainable.

14. South Asia has more than 20% of world’s pop., but only 4% of its freshwater. Water disputes increasingly common - political rivalries and bureaucratic inertia have delayed development and implementation of national water policies. In Delhi, 17 five-star hotels use about 210,000 gallons (800,000 liters) of water daily - enough to serve needs of 1.3 million people in Delhi slums. Late 1990s - India signed treaty with Bangladesh promising fairer distribution of water … As of 2010, Bangladesh still receiving considerably reduced flow.

15. Basic water safety is an issue across region but especially crucial in historic religious pilgrimage towns, (e.g., Varanasi) where millions of Hindus come to die, be cremated, and have ashes scattered over Ganga River. Greater concern is amount of industrial waste and sewage dumped into rivers and streams. Most sewage enters water bodies in raw form because city sewage systems long ago exceeded capacity. A Hindu woman washes her baby in the highly polluted Ganga River in Varanasi, India. Many Hindus consider this a sacred act of ritual purification.

16. Insufficient water threatens two essential agricultural activities in South Asia: production of export crops and production of food for domestic consumption. Since ancient times, both India and Pakistan have pioneered methods of increasing rate at which water deposited during summer monsoon percolates through soil and into underground aquifers, rather than evaporating. Because agriculture uses most water of any human activity, drip irrigation would help conserve water. Relatively high cost of modern, efficient drip equipment has hampered widespread implementation.

17. As forests vanished, NW regions of subcontinent became increasingly drier. Pace of deforestation increased dramatically over past 200 years … commercial logging and expanding village populations using wood for building and fuel contributing. Countries of South Asia have vibrant culture of environmental activism that alerted public to consequences of deforestation. Chipko movement (social forestry movement) has slowed deforestation and increased ecological awareness.

19. Many parts of South Asia - air and water is endangered by industrial activity. Delhi’s air is equivalent to smoking 20 cigarettes a day. Taj Mahal - white marble was becoming pitted by acid rain. Legislation successfully promoted that has removed hundreds of most polluting factories from India’s river valleys. A public bus billows smoke in New Delhi, India, which now rivals Beijing, China, for having the worst air pollution in the world. Sixty-seven percent of air pollution in New Delhi comes from vehicles.

20. 1. The battle over water rights India and Bangladesh are battling over access to the Ganga River. India is diverting much of the water, depriving Bangladesh of normal flow. What are the positive and negative effects of India’s water diversion on both India and Bangladesh? Which country has the primary right to the water? Why? How can this conflict be resolved? Why is it so difficult to come up with a solution? Should there be international intervention?

22. Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa culture) Mughals Hinduism caste system Jati Varna Buddhism Jainism Sikhism civil disobedience partition

23. First large agricultural communities (Indus Valley civilization - or Harappa culture) appeared about 4500 years ago along Indus River in modern-day Pakistan and NW India. Architecture and urban design were quite advanced for the time. Reasons for decline of Indus Valley civilization are debated. Some believe complex geologic (seismic) and ecological changes (drier climate) brought about gradual demise. Others argue that foreign invaders brought swift collapse, instigating out-migration.

24. First recorded invaders came from Central and SW Asia into Indus Valley and Punjab about 3500 years ago. Many believe that these Indo- Europeans, in conjunction with Harappa and other indigenous cultures, instituted early elements of classical Hinduism - major religion of India today. Wave after wave of invaders arrived, including Persians, armies of Alexander the Great, and numerous Turkic and Mongolian peoples.

25. Jews came to SW India more than 2500 years ago – Christians came shortly after time of Jesus. Arab traders and religious mystics introduced Islam to (now) Afghanistan, Pakistan, and NW India. 1526 – Mughals (Turkic Persian people from Central Asia) invaded from north, intensifying growth of Islam. Mughals reached height of power in 17th century, controlling north-central plains of South Asia. Mughal rule declined … regional states and kingdoms rose and competed. Late 1700s - Several European trading companies competing to gain foothold.

26. In India, 18 languages are officially recognized, but hundreds of distinct languages. Complexity results partly from region’s history of multiple invasions from outside. Variants of Hindi are national languages for both India and Pakistan (there, called Urdu), but it is first language of only a minority. English is common second language throughout region.

27. Hinduism practiced by approximately 900 million people, 800 million live in India. Complex belief system, with roots in ancient literary texts (Great Tradition) and highly localized folk traditions (Little Tradition). Buddhism originated in India in 6th century BCE as reinterpretation of Hinduism - emphasizes modest living and peaceful self-reflection leading to enlightenment. Jainism originated as reformist movement within Hinduism more than 2000 years ago - found mainly in western India and large urban centers throughout region - known for educational achievements, nonviolence, and strict vegetarianism. Sikhism combines beliefs of Islam and Hinduism.

29. Caste system - Complex and ancient way of dividing society into hereditary hierarchical categories. One is born into a subcaste (jati) that traditionally defined much of one’s life experience - where one would live, where and what one could eat and drink, with whom one would associate, one’s marriage partner, and often one’s livelihood. Varna - Four hierarchically ordered divisions of society underlying caste system: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors/kings), Vaishyas (merchants/landowners), and Sudras (laborers/artisans)

30. Last great Mughal ruler (Aurangzeb) died in 1707, but cultural legacy of Mughals remained, even as power and range of dynasty declined. 520 million Muslims now living in South Asia. Mughals also left unique heritage of architecture, art, and literature, (e.g., Taj Mahal, miniature painting, and lyric poetry).

31. By 1857 - East India Company, acting as extension of British government, put down rebellion against European intrusion and became dominant power in region. British accelerated process of globalization in South Asia, transforming region politically, socially, and economically. Even areas not directly ruled by British felt influence of their empire. Afghanistan repelled British attempts at military conquest, but British continued to intervene there, trying to make Afghanistan a “buffer state” between British India and Russia’s expanding empire.

32. British used South Asia’s resources primarily for their own benefit. By 1750 - South Asia had advanced manufacturing economy that produced 12-14x more cotton cloth than Britain and more than all of Europe combined. Britain’s highly mechanized textile industry - based on cotton grown in India, other colonies, and American South - developed cheaper cloth that replaced Bengali muslin. British East India Company began severely punishing Bengalis who continued to run their own looms. Many people pushed out of traditional livelihoods in textile manufacturing … compelled to find work as landless laborers.

34. Contemporary South Asian governments retain institutions put in place by British to administer their vast empire. Governments inherited many shortcomings of colonial forbearers - highly bureaucratic procedures, resistance to change, and tendency to remain aloof from people they govern. Democratic governments not instituted on large scale until final days of Empire, but since independence in 1947, people able to use freedoms afforded by democracy to voice concerns and make many peaceful transitions to elected governments.

35. Tremendous changes brought by British inspired many resistance movements among South Asians. Some were militant movements intent on pushing British out by force. Mohandas Gandhi emerged as central political leader in South Asia’s independence movement. He used tactics of civil disobedience to nonviolently defy laws imposed by British that discriminated against South Asians. Gathering large group of peaceful protesters, he would notify government that group was about to break a discriminatory law. Gandhi led thousands of people with this strategy in 1930s and 40s to slowly undermine British authority.

36. Fearing they would be persecuted if they did not move, more than 7 million Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India from ancestral homes in what had become West or East Pakistan. Similar number of Muslims left homes in India for one of the parts of Pakistan. Civil society broke down. Partition was tragic culmination of divide-and-rule approach of British … Heightened tensions between South Asian Muslims and Hindus … creating a role for British as seemingly indispensable and benevolent mediators.

37. Democracy expanded steadily but somewhat slowly. India now world’s most populous democracy. Pakistan has had repeated elections and some governments have been modestly effective. Militaristic authoritarian and corrupt Pakistani regimes have been more the norm - Pakistan’s and India’s long border feud. After independence, progress in agricultural production was slow until late 1960s - green revolution brought marked improvements. Industrialization became main goal - most countries in region, urban-based industrial and service economies now constitute far larger share of GNI than agriculture.

39. South Asia is a region of startling economic incongruities. India home to hundreds of millions of desperately poor people, but also global leader in computer software and engineering innovation. Agriculture employs more than 50% of workers in South Asia, but contribution to most national economies averages less than 20% of GNI for the region. Industrial sector employs far fewer people but produces ¼- 1/3 of GNI in all countries except Nepal, Bhutan, and Afghanistan. Measures to encourage economic modernization include emphasis on IT and other high-tech industries, automotive industry in India, textile and leather manufacturing in Pakistan, and microfinancing strategies in Bangladesh.

40. To reach goal of self-sufficiency, governments took over industries they believed to be linchpins of strong economy: steel, coal, transportation, communications, and wide range of manufacturing and processing industries. Since such a small portion of population directly benefited from this investment, industrialization failed to significantly increase South Asia’s overall prosperity. Also, measures intended to boost employment often contributed to inefficiency - one policy encouraged industries to employ as many people as possible, even if they were not needed.

41. Privatization of India’s public sector industries and banks has been arguably more successful than SAPs and similar reforms imposed by IMF and World Bank in other countries. Due to India’s large and cheap workforce, excellent educational infrastructure, and domestic demand for manufactured goods, many companies setting up headquarters in India’s major cities. Major global finance firms hiring highly qualified Indian workers on Mumbai’s Dalal Street - Indian “Wall Street.” India’s current manufacturing boom benefiting from previous boom in offshore outsourcing that started in 1990s - company contracts to have some business functions performed in a country other than one where products or services are actually developed, manufactured, and sold.

43. Until 1960s, agriculture was based on traditional small-scale systems that managed to feed families in good years, but often left them hungry or starving in years of drought or flooding. Green revolution’s benefits have been uneven - Some Indian states that have extensive irrigation networks, have increased prosperity tremendously … But poor farmers unable to afford special seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and new equipment could not compete and had to give up farming. South Asia needs alternatives to standard green revolution strategies because it will have difficulty maintaining current levels of food production over long term.

45. Agroecology is potential remedy for some failings of green revolution agriculture. Agroecology - Often involves revival and use of traditional methods, (e.g., fertilizing crops with animal manure, intercropping (planting several species together) with legumes to add nitrogen and organic matter, water conservation, and using natural predators to control pests).

46. Microcredit makes very small loans (generally under U.S.$100) to poor would- be business owners. Banks are generally not interested in administering small loans that poor people, especially women, need. Late 1970s - Muhammad Yunus, economics professor in Bangladesh, started Grameen Bank (Village Bank) - makes small loans, mostly in rural villages, to people to start businesses. Borrowers (more than 90% of whom are women) are organized into small groups collectively responsible for repaying any loans to group members. If one member fails to repay loan, everyone in group is denied loans until loan is repaid.

47. Borrowers from the Grameen Bank meet in a rural area near Dhaka, Bangladesh. Following a model established in 1974 by Bangladeshi economist Mohammad Yunus, such groups gather weekly to discuss business and pay their loan installments.

49. Indian independence leaders (e.g., Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru) emphasized common cause of throwing off British rule that once united Muslim and Hindu Indians. Hindus and Muslims often interact amicably, and occasionally marry each other. At community level, relations between Hindus and Muslims are often quite tense - communal conflict - can erupt over seemingly trivial events. Boys in Hampi, Karnataka eat a South Indian thali, or feast, featuring rice, lentils, and various other vegetarian dishes served on a banana leaf. Chapatis, a type of wheat flatbread, are cooked on a griddle at a wedding in Rajasthan in northwest India Street food in a crowded marketplace in Dhaka, Bangladesh, during Ramadan.

50. Association of a particular religion with a particular territory or political unit to the exclusion of other religions, is religious nationalism. Ultimate goal is often political control over a given territory. In India, urban men from middle-and upper-caste groups are predominant supporters of Hindu nationalism (Hindutva). Hindutva proponents promote Hinduism, fear erosion of their castes’ political influence, and resent extension of quota system for government jobs and admission to universities to lower-caste groups. Political parties based on religious nationalism have gained popularity throughout South Asia - usually no less corrupt or violent than secular parties.

51. 3-day series of coordinated terrorist attacks in Mumbai in November 2008 left 160 dead in luxury hotels, a Jewish center, and a railroad station. Attacks continue to muddy Indian relations with Pakistan, where plot was hatched. Unchecked religious nationalism helps create antagonistic context for such violence.

52. In recent years, some, frustrated by government inefficiency, corruption, religious nationalism, caste politics, and failure of governments to deliver on promises of broad-based prosperity, have formed political blocs for reform. Spread of cell phones and use in banking and money transfers will make transactions more traceable and corruption more difficult. Aadhaar Project - Provide 1.2 billion Indians with ID card – expected to facilitate distribution of government benefits and eliminate graft, and to give poorest and most remote citizen secure identity for voting and conducting financial transactions. Large numbers of new voters, at least 1/3 of whom are 18-19 years old, have recently registered. Educated and urbanized voters have more access to information than voters in the past - ushering in new political era, motivated against corruption.

53. Since 1947, South Asian countries have had much success in peacefully resolving conflicts, smoothing transfers of power, and nurturing public debate over issues. However, in many cases, supporters of opposing political ideologies have tried to resolve differences through violence. Particularly virulent source of conflict is corruption - often linked to purposeful bureaucratic inefficiency, especially soliciting bribes to perform a service.

54. Most intense armed conflicts in South Asia today are regional conflicts, in which nations dispute territorial boundaries or a minority actively resists authority of national or state government.

55. Struggle for territory between India and Pakistan - neither is willing to let people of Kashmir resolve dispute democratically. Kashmir has long been Muslim-dominated area. 1947 - Some Kashmiris thought it should be turned over to Pakistan, but Kashmiri leaders favored joining India for its secularism. Brief war led to cease-fire line that became boundary that is still being debated. 1965 - Pakistan attempted to invade Kashmir again but was defeated. India and Pakistan technically still waiting for UN decision about final location of border. Most Kashmiris now support independence from India and Pakistan - Neither country is willing to hold a vote on matter. Both India and Pakistan - came close to war against each other in 1999 and again in 2002 - have nuclear weapons.

56. 1970s - Political debate in Afghanistan became polarized:  Factions of urban elites who favored modernization and democratic reforms.  Rural, conservative religious leaders (landholders and ethnic leaders) threatened by proposed reforms. 1979 - Fearing that civil war in Afghanistan would destabilize neighboring Soviet republics in Central Asia, Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Rural conservative leaders and their followers formed anti-Soviet resistance group (mujahedeen) supported by U.S. and Pakistan. Early 1990s - Taliban emerged from mujahedeen who wanted to control corruption and crime and minimize Western influence. By late 2001 - Taliban overpowered by alliance of Afghans, supported heavily by the U.S. and U.K. and eventually by NATO. Based in rural areas in Pakistan and Afghanistan, Taliban are now aided by widespread distrust of government in Kabul, which is seen as corrupt.

57. Singhalese make up 74% of Sri Lanka’s population - most are Buddhist. Tamils (Hindu ethnic group from South India) - about 18% of population of Sri Lanka - half have been in Sri Lanka since 13th century. Singhalese made only official language and Tamil plantation workers were denied right to vote - efforts made to deport hundreds of thousands of Tamils to India. 1960s - Government shifted investment away from agricultural development toward urban manufacturing and textile industries, dominated by Singhalese. By 1983 - Tamil minority, lacking political power and influence, chose guerilla warfare against Singhalese, mounting army known as Tamil Tigers. Long years of violence severely curtailed tourist industry, but economic growth in other sectors has been surprisingly robust.

58. 1996 - Maoist revolutionaries waged “people’s war” against Nepalese monarchy. 2008 - Maoists won majority in parliament and made former rebel leader prime minister. Maoist opposition agreed to participate in writing new constitution, but divisive issues relating to power sharing and dividing country into ethnic states have obstructed creation of broadly acceptable constitution. The former monarch of Nepal, King Gyanendra, whose removal from power paved the way for the growth of political freedoms and the end of Nepal’s civil war. Since then, former combatants, such as the Maoists, have become peaceful political parties.

59. Caste and class are not the same thing - Class refers to economic status, and there are class differences within caste groups because of differences in wealth. In the 20th century - Mohandas Gandhi began organized effort to eliminate discrimination against “untouchables.” … India’s constitution now bans caste discrimination. At local level, most political parties design vote-getting strategies to appeal to subcaste loyalties - Often secure votes of entire jati communities with political favors, (e.g., new roads, schools, or development projects). Among educated people in urban areas, campaign to eradicate discrimination on basis of caste may appear to have succeeded, but reality is more complex.

61. About 70% of South Asians live in hundreds of thousands of villages. Although only 30% of region’s pop. lives in urban areas, S. Asia has several of world’s largest metropolitan areas. Cell phone is bringing urban-style communication into countryside. Over half the pop. of S. Asia has access to a cell phone.

62. Elegant high-rise condominiums built for city’s rapidly growing middle class - Mumbai’s wealth is most evident. Wealth also extends through city’s creative arts industries, including “Bollywood” film industry … But at street level, urban landscape dominated by large numbers of people living on sidewalks, narrow spaces between buildings, and large shantytowns - largest (Dharavi) houses 1 million people in 1 sq. mi.

63. 23 million children between 5-14 working in South Asia - many in urban areas. Children work primarily in informal sector as domestic servants; in export-oriented factories like those small enterprises in urban slums; and as dump scavengers. Role of children as family workers must be balanced with need to have children attend school. One of chief benefits of urban life is education, where children learn skills that will enable them to survive and prosper in a modern economy.

64. Women’s experience with purdah (seclusion) can leave them especially at risk. Inexperienced and undereducated rural women and girls are most often recruited or forced into sex work - selling of sexual acts for a fee. Rural men new to cities are also at risk: on-the-job accidents, exposure to HIV, extreme pressure to support families on tiny wages, and loss of camaraderie with fellow villagers.

66. South Asia is most densely populated region in the world. Population densities are highest in cities that lie just south of Hindu Kush and Himalayas - at peak in Ganga- Brahamaputra delta. With improved health care, far fewer babies are dying in infancy. Improved access to health care is incentive to have smaller families, and also shift in population from rural to urban areas reduces economic incentive for large families.

67. South Asia ranks in the low and very low categories, with only Bhutan and Sri Lanka ranking in medium and medium-low categories. Gender equality is far from a reality. South Asia is in a league with only North Africa and Southwest Asia and Mexico.

68. Five Indian states from 2004 to 2006 showed some improvement in gender imbalance in births, with Tamil Nadu coming closest to normal sex ratio, probably due to aggressive campaign for women’s health and against sex-selective abortions. Gender imbalance of the magnitude India could create serious problems, (e.g., surges in crime and drug abuse related to presence of so many young men with no prospect of having a family). Kerala’s government has made women’s development a priority, funding education for women beyond basic levels.

69. Sri Lanka has worked hard to educate and economically empower its women. If this trend continues, Pakistan, as well as all South Asian countries except Afghanistan, will enjoy what is called demographic dividend: bulge of young people entering workforce and choosing to have fewer children, who will thus have the time and energy to study, to work, and to contribute to the economy and civil society.

70. On average, women’s literacy rates, social status, earning power, and welfare are generally lower than those of men. Urban women in South Asia generally have more individual freedom than rural women, with many now pursuing professional careers and some becoming involved in politics. Socioeconomic status of Muslim women in South Asia is notably lower than that of Hindu and Christian counterparts.

72. Concealing women from eyes of nonfamily men, especially during women’s reproductive years - purdah. Purdah practices have influenced architecture - homes often in walled compounds that seclude kitchens and laundries as women’s spaces. Most marriages are arranged by parents of prospective bride and groom. Motherhood determines much about a woman’s life – a woman’s power and mobility increase when she has grown children and becomes a mother-in-law herself. Dowry - Sum of money paid by bride’s family to groom’s family at time of marriage. Until last several decades, only wealthy families gave groom a dowry - in this case, a substantial sum that symbolized family’s wealth, meant to give a daughter a measure of security in her new family.

73. Status of women in region has risen - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka have had female heads of state, but all were wives or daughters of previous heads of state. Women in Afghanistan have frequently suffered brutal repression since conservative Islamist movement (Taliban) gained control in mid-1990s. Taliban support strict and radical interpretations of Islamic law - forcing females, including urban professional women, to live in seclusion. Hypermasculine societies tend to repress creativity and emotional sensitivity in males - can lead to closed minds and violence toward others, particularly women - especially strong in Afghanistan and Pakistan.