1. Russia Political Structure

2. Think… “It’s all about Putin”

3. R USSIA : T HE B IG P ICTURE   System of Government: Mixed Presidential/Parliamentary   Distribution of Power: Federal System (Asymmetric)   Electoral System: Proportional Representation (2007)   Constitution: 1993 Constitution   Legislature: Bicameral—Duma and Federation Council   Current President: Dmitry Medvedev   Current Prime Minister: Vladimir Putin   Current Ruling Party: United Russia Party   Major Political Parties: Communist, Liberal Democrats, Fair Russia

4. The Soviet State Structure Local Level Government Regional Level Government Local Level Communist Party Supreme Soviet POLITBURO Top Party Organ – the “leader” of the USSR chaired this group. Made all important policy Regional Level Communist Party National Level Communist Party (CPSU) CENTRAL COMMITTEE Represented the larger political elite Lower party bodies elected delegates to higher party organs, but these elections were uncontested, and top organs determined candidates for lower party posts These structures resembled those of Western parliamentary systems, but had little decision making authority. The bureaucracy at this level was much larger than the party. Officeholders appointed through the nomenklatura system.

5. Constitution of 1993   Created a three-branch government   President & Prime Minister   Lower legislative house (DUMA)   Constitutional Court   Referendum - allowed for president to call for national referenda by popular vote on important issues   Yeltsin’s 1 st referendum: his job performance   2 nd : approval of the constitution itself

6. The New Russian Regime Executive Branch   Dual executive (president and PM)   Who is actually in control? When Yeltsin was suffering from continuing health problems in 1998-1999 power seemed to reside with the PM. The PM was also from a different political party that led to divided government and gridlock. When Putin was President, you rarely heard about the PM.   As Putin moved from the Presidency to the role of PM, the role seems more important again. The Communist regime collapsed in 1991. A new Constitution was written and passed by referendum in 1993

7. President   President is directly elected. 2 term limit – 4 year terms (recently changed to 6 years)   President is head of state   Because so much power resides in the office of president, the decline of Yeltsin’s health contributed greatly to Russia’s crisis.   Impeachment is a complicated process involving the Duma, Federation Council, Supreme Court, and the Constitutional Court (Yeltsin’s opponents in the Duma tried, but were unsuccessful several times)   One of the president’s most important powers is the authority to issue decrees, which frequently address contentious issues such as privatization, salaries of state workers, running the econ, electoral arrangements, anticrime measures.   Decrees have the force of law until formal legislation is passed (the Chechnya war began with such a decree). They cannot violate the constitution or the laws already on the books.

8. President Cont.   President may also call a state of emergency, impose martial law, grant pardons, call referendums, and temporarily suspend actions of state organizations if he believes they are in contradiction of the constitution, he is Commander in Chief and is in charge of conducing affairs of state with foreign nations.   Temporarily suspend actions of other state organizations if he deems them to contradict the constitution or federal laws.   Appoints PM (with approval of the Duma).   Can call referenda (nation-wide votes to approve government actions).   If the president dies or is incapacitated, the post is temporarily filled by the PM until new elections are held

9. Prime Minister   The ‘government’ consists of the PM, deputy PMs, and federal ministers (like in the UK).   The PM must be approved by the Duma – the nominee does not need to be a member of parliament or a member of the majority party (other cabinet members are recommended to the president by the PM).   The government can issue resolutions and directives which the president may override if he deems them to contradict federal laws, presidential decrees, or the constitution.   Government proposes the budget, proposes legislation (as does the president), and ensures implementation of policy.   If the Duma fails to approve the President’s choice of PM, it is dissolved.   PM can be removed by the Duma if it votes no confidence two times within three months. Although the process has been attempted several times in the past decade, it has never succeeded   Prime Minister does not need to be a member of the dominant party (one of Yeltsin’s problems).   Principles of party accountability that apply in Western parliamentary systems are not operative in Russia.   Without discipline parties and no formal links between parties and the executive branch, it is difficult to gain parliamentary acceptance

10. Legislative Branch   In order for a bill to become a law, it must be approved by both houses of parliament and signed by the president. If the president vetoes the bill, it must be passed again by a two-thirds majority.   PM serves as the bridge between the executive branch and the legislative branch.

11. Legislative Branch Federal Assembly Bicameral Legislature The Duma The Lower House 450 deputies – elected every 4 years (soon to become 5) through Proportional Representation. 7% Threshold. Named after the short-lived assembly founded after the 1905 Rev Federation Council The Upper House 2 delegates from each of Russia’s 84 federal units (168) 2004 President of Russia nominates two delegates. The nominees are confirmed by regional legislature. 2000 Regional executive and regional legislature each appoint one delegate 1995 Delegates were the regional governor and the head of the regional legislature 1993 Directly elected

12. Duel Executive PM Head of Government Nominated by Pres Confirmed By Duma Traditionally Focused on Economy President Head of State Popularly Elected by Runoff Term 6 years Traditionally has focused on Security, Foreign Affairs and Federal Issues Fed. Council Upper House 2 Appointed Senators For each of 84 Regions Duma Lower House 450 members Elected by PR Legislative Executive Nominates Confirms

14. Political Culture and Participation Political Parties Today   Putin controls almost all important political parties   United Russia — Promotes interest of leadership   Just Russia — competition created by the power elite will not contest for real power   Communist Party of the Russian Federation is a nationalistic, social democratic (self-labeled) party that is a nation-wide organization losing support everywhere   Two weak reformist parties, both losing support   Yabloko — favors democracy and social welfare system   Union of Right Forces — favors drastic economic restructuring   Anti-democratic parties — Liberal Democrats, anti- Semitic, super nationalistic party

15. Citizens, Society, and the State Citizens, Society, and the State Nationality   Most important single cleavage in Russia   80% of population is Russian; others include:   Tatars, Ukranians, Armenians, Bashkis, Moldavians   Many ethnic groups would like independence, but are enticed by trade benefits with the Russian government to stay in the Federation   Chechnya is the one exception

16. Chechnya   Primarily Muslim region of Russia   Contains valuable resources (oil)   Independence movement is strong, and Russian government has struggled to keep Chechnya region within its control   Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics including taking over a heavily attended Russian theater and in 2004 the seizure of a Beslan school that resulted in 350 deaths (mostly kids)

18. Religion   Russian Orthodox under the tsars   All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions rule   Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox Church to reestablish itself as a signal of a break from communism and a reflection of old Russian nationalism   Other religions represented in very small percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims, Protestants)

19. Social Class   Russian society much more egalitarian than western societies with a few notable exceptions   Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members, and all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within this group egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance was given to economic and social background   Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsin’s regime, often former KGB and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to promote business. Struggled in late 1990’s but have emerged as leaders in Russia after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil. Putin had to arrest or send into exile CEO’s of these companies for refusing to pay or underpaying government taxes

20. Rural vs. Urban Life   73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the western part of the country   Economic divide between rural and urban residents is wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia   Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch with western culture

21. Beliefs and Attitudes   Mistrust of Government – result of treatment and government secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes   Statism – despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still expect the state to take active role in their lives   Economic Beliefs – nearly all groups and political factions favor market reforms, although not all do so enthusiastically   Westernization - “Slavophile vs. Westernizer” – some political parties emphasize nationalism, Russian interests, and Slavic culture; others emphasize reform, and integration of Russia into world economy and global trade

22. Political Participation   During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore was close to 100%   Gorbachev’s reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet Union that followed through to the Russian Federation   In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the U.S.   Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only 50.3%, but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over the country   Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections to less than 65% for the 2004 elections   Lack of participation may be due to Russia’s underdeveloped civil society   Only 1% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political party   Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups

25. Bureaucracy   Patron-Client Relationships – Very important during the Soviet era, continue to play a key role in Russia. They underscore the importance of personal career ties between individuals as they rise in bureaucratic or political structures.   For example, Putin has drawn heavily on colleagues with whom he worked earlier in St. Petersburg or in the KGB.   People in power look for who they know and trust (much like the “old-boy networks” in the West – it’s not what you know it’s who you know”)   Accordingly, the civil service is not non- partisan like it is in the UK. Siloviki are a Kremlin faction comprised of former military/intelligence officers who desire a strong Russia. When there is a political post available, the siloviki fill it with someone from their ‘loyalty pyramid.’

26. Military   Military did not play a direct or official political role in Russia and Soviet politics.   The military received preferential treatment and was nearly always represented in the Politburo (military budgets were top priorities in Soviet times)   The military did assert its interests in conflicts between leaders (it helped bring about the downfall of Khrushchev in 1964)   The military remained loyal to Gorby/Yeltsin although the Minister of Defense was one of the hardliner coup plotters   Military did defend the government in 1993 (this time they did fire on civilian protesters)   If the military was more involved, it would be more like 3rd world nations   Military is being cut   Military has found it rough going in Chechnya

27. Judiciary Constitutional Council   Concepts of judicial independence and the rule of law were poorly understood in Russia (both in Tsarist and Soviet era)   Constitutional Court was formed in 1991. It’s decisions were binding and in several cases the president had to bow to its authority (Yeltsin suspend it but it was re- established in the Constitution of 1993)   Power to adjudicate disputes on the constitutionality of federal and regional laws and jurisdictional disputes between various political institutions.   Exercises Judicial Review   Justices are nominated by the president and approved by the Federation Council   Very few lawyers in Russia

28. Supreme Court   Pinnacle of the court system. Hear civil and criminal cases   Judges placed by presidential nomination and Federation Council approval

29. Interest Groups   Oligarchy   Tied closely with the Yeltsin family   By mid-1990s monopolized Russian industry and built huge fortunes   Boris Berezovsky – admitted that he and six other entrepreneurs controlled over half the GNP   Dominant in oil, media, and television industries   Helped Yeltsin win 1996 election   Created and financed the Unity Party in 2000 and got Vladimir Putin elected   Russian Mafia  Larger and perhaps even more influential than the oligarchy  Initially involved in underworld crime  During Revolution of 1991 gained control of businesses, natural resources, and banks  Involved in money laundering, drugs, prostitution, and business payoffs (“protection money”)  Includes former members of the KGB

30. Interest Groups II   Huge fortunes made by oligarchs and the mafia offend the equality of opportunity principle of the Russian people   In the past, lawlessness in Russia has been dealt with by repressive, authoritarian rule, and these groups represent a threat to the new democracy   Putin arrested television magnate Vladimir Gusinsky for corruption and his company was given to a state-owned monopoly   In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian government was consolidating power   Yukos was slapped with massive penalties and additional taxes, forcing it into bankruptcy   Russian Media – a linkage institution with close ties to both the state and the oligarchy, has been manipulated by dominant political and interest groups to pursue their own causes

31. New Legal Code   New Legal code in 2002 that governs the prosecution of criminal cases and protects the rights of those accused.   Anyone accused of a crime must now appear in court within 48 hours, codifying the concept of habeas corpus into Russia’s system   Defendants may demand a lawyer   No longer subjected to double jeopardy (except in rare instances)   Power will move to judges and away from prosecutors (there is a drastic shortage of judges)   Commission recommended 3,500 amendments to the old code written in the Khrushchev era   The old system had a 99.5% conviction rate.

32. Federalism   80-some units = 21 republics, 49 oblasts, 6 krais, 10 autonomous okrugs, 1 autonomous oblast, and 2 cities with federal status (St. Pete and Moscow)   They had different status under the Soviet system. What should be the case today?   Many of the differences are based on ethnic/racial differences   Russia has a system of asymmetrical federalism where different regions have different privileges. The result is an escalation of regional demands (pressures from below)   Federal Districts were created in May 2000 by Vladimir Putin as a part of a wider program designed to reassert federal authority. Included the Federation Council becoming indirectly elected scrutinizing of republican constitutions and regional charters President gaining the right to dissolve subjects’ parliaments and dismiss subjects’ governments if they disobey federal law. The Federal Districts act as a liaison between the Kremlin and the 80- some subdistricts.

33. Soviet Economy   Command Economy – all important economic assets belonged to the state. Ministries oversaw the various sectors of the economy.   GOSPLAN (the state planning committee) was responsible for working out one-year and five-year plans   Prices were centrally controlled – they did not obey supply and demand (except on the illegal black market)   Military was always a top priority (helped lead to the CCCPs downfall)   Environmental protection was a low priority (Marxist-Leninist ideology saw technology as a capable of mastering nature and counteracting any negative effects)   Peasants were allowed small plots of land that were not included in the state planning system. In the 1980s, these plots accounted for 25% of the total agricultural output (but only 1.5% of the agricultural land).   Productivity and efficiency were low because filling the quota was all that mattered (A frequent cause of fire in Soviet Moscow was exploding television tests – probably manufactured at the end of the month).

34. Hand, Hand, Fingers, Thumbs   Charles Lindblom has likened centralized authoritarian regimes to our thumbs. The thumb is best suited for crudely pushing things whereas the other four fingers are better suited for doing more subtle, delicate, and complicated work. Soviets were good at thumbing their economy and achieving rapid industrialization. They needed more cement, railroad track, electric wire, and other low-tech commodities.   More modern, technologically sophisticated economies require organization and skills that are more like “fingers.”

35. Soviet Way of Life   Low-cost access to essential goods and services, housing, transport, food, cafeterias at work, children’s clothing, books, cultural facilities, vacation facilities were all subsidized.   Citizens received many benefits at their place of employment making it a social and economic institution (1984ish)   Health care was free, but quality was dubious (under-the- table payments prompted better-quality service)   Education was a priority. The state provided education free of charge with state stipends provided to university students. Following graduation, students were assigned to particular jobs as a payment for free education.

36. “We pretend to work and they pretend to pay us.” – Soviet Parable   Job security – zero unemployment   Labor productivity was low and work discipline was weak; drunkenness and absenteeism were high.   Wages were centrally set, but managers could make adjustments however the wage differentials between the highest and lowest works were lower than in Western economies   Retirement was 55 for women and 60 for men. Modest pensions were guaranteed.

37. Gorby (1985-1991) Selected as head of the Communist Party in 1985 (upon Chernynko’s death – there weren’t any more “grey leaders” so they had to go with a “youthful” 54 year old Gorby)   Reform Program   1. Perestroika – Restructuring   Reform (Restructure) the economic system but maintain central planning. Gorby did not want to create a capitalistic country (stay Communist and inject small amounts of capitalism to increase efficiency and initiative)   Gorby was unwilling to give up the state’s role in assuring full employment.   Critics say he didn’t go far enough.   2. Glasnost – Openness   Relax controls on debate, allow diverse viewpoints, and allow publication of prohibited literature (another Pandora’s Box)

38. Gorby Cont.   3. Demokratizatsiia – Democratization   Increase the responsiveness of political organs to the people. Transition into a true law-based state where the Constitution actually matters. A little more “by the people” instead of total “for the people.”   There is not example in Russia to draw from (except the brief Provisional Gov’t)   4. New Thinking   Find ways to cooperate with the West. Rethink the concept to power to be something other than military strength (too adversarial)

39. The Coup Attempt & Collapse (August 19, 1991)   Hardliners staged a coup attempt after having enough of perestroika and glasnost. The coup temporarily removed Gorby and held him at his summer dacha. Yeltsin climbed atop a tank (part of a battalion loyal to the Reform agenda) and rallied the people. Some of the military units defected to Yeltsin’s side and by August 21 Gorbachev was (nominally) back in power. Yeltin becomes leader of Russia as the Soviet Union collapses

40. Yeltsin (1991-2000)   Commits to full-blown market reform and democratization   Shock Policies: lift price controls, encourage small private business, privatize stateowned enterprises, open the economy to international influence.   Market reform creates unpopular economic repercussions (price supports removed – bread is suddenly expensive)   Yeltsin used decree to implement much of his program (how dedicated to democracy is he?)   In Oct. 1993, Yelstin disbanded an obstructive parliament (in his opinion) and laid siege to the Russian White House (same place as he stood on a tank in 1991). Yeltsin ordered the military to shell the seat of the legislature.   After the events of 1993, Yeltsin mandated new elections and a constitutional referendum in December. The Constitution was accepted by voters and established a powerful president and weak parliament

41. Yeltsin’s Challenge (most nations haven’t had to go through these challenges simultaneously) 1. Democratization – including competitive elections and competing parties 2. Dismantling the state economy. Privatization, release of price control, end of guaranteed employment. Shock the system out of the patrimonial state. By 1992, there was 1,354% inflation and real wages had decreased by 50%. 3. Search for a new collective identity to replace those provided by Communism 4. Economic integration into the world – how do you deal with globalization forces with all the other problems listed above

42. The Economy   Perestroika reforms – market economy programs inserted into traditional centralized state ownership design   “Shock Therapy reforms” – created chaotic conditions that resulted in a small group of entrepreneurs running the economy   In 1997 economy collapsed when government defaulted on billions of dollars of debts   Russian stock market lost half its value, threatened global markets as well   Ruble lost value rapidly, by 2002 it took more than 30,000 rubles to equal one dollar   The overall economy did see slight improvements in 1999–2000   In 2004 the economy grew 7%, and standards of living improved, the first real signs that the Russian economy was starting to thrive again   Older Russians believe that the state holds power over the people

43. SHOCK THERAPY   In economics, shock therapy refers to the sudden release of price and currency controls, withdrawal of state subsidies, and immediate trade liberalization within a country, usually also including large scale privatization of previously public owned assets.

44. 1998   On the economic front, the situation in Russia was the worst it had been (it was akin to the Great Depression – which ironically the Soviets weathered quite well since they were a closed system – autarkic – and not subject to the boom and bust cycles of capitalist regimes)   The failed promises elicited a growing skepticism.   Russia had not been able to find a third way (the Soviet way didn’t work – unbridled capitalism not working) Soviet institutions were not democratic but at least they were predicable.   By 1998, GDP was 54% of the 1989 level & industrial production was less than half of 1990 level   Capital Flight – money is removed from the country in deposited in foreign accounts or assets   Pyramid Debt – government successively took on new loans at progressively higher rates in order to pay of existing debts   By 1998, the stock market had lost 90% of its value   Banks limited withdrawals   Regionalism was reinforced. The haves made demands and won concessions. The have-nots were bitter and frustrated   Power of the mafia grew because they could deliver services during the crisis

45. Privatization   Spontaneous privatization which allowed existing managers and bureaucrats to turn promising enterprises into private entities without a clear legal framework – former elites appropriated state property   Privatization such a focus that each citizen was given a privatization voucher worth 10,000 rubles in 1992 (about $10-20 US at the time). These vouchers could be used to buy shares in enterprises undergoing privatization, to sell for cash, or to invest.   Created a group known as the OLIGARCHS who have parlayed their profits from privatization into political leverage   Boris Berezovsky seems to be one of the most powerful. In 1997 he bragged that he and six other oligarchs controlled over half of Russia’s GNP   Yeltsin owed his reelection in 1996 to Berezovksy and other oligarchs. They contributed vast sums of money and controlled the major media outlets. They are also responsible for Putin’s Unity’s meteoric rise

46. Foreign Policy   Relations with Former Republics   Confederation of Independent States (CIS)   Russia is the clear leader of organization   Is not nearly as successful, economically and politically, as the EU   Bonded together by trade agreements   Tensions of nationality issues   Putin’s meddling in Ukrainian election of 2004 was cause for concern   Relations with the World  Adjustment period for Russia following Cold War and loss of superpower status  Offered aid and foreign investment by U.S.  Accepted into the G-7 (now known as G-8)  UN Security Council permanent member  Russia set to join the WTO in July 2007

47. Legitimacy   Low legitimacy…Putin uses authoritarian strategies to solidify Russia’s weak, illiberal democracy.   Historically Russia’s political legitimacy has been based on strong, centralized, autocratic rule (czars)   Communist rule propagated by Marxism- Leninism   Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of the many   Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism   Constitution of 1993 – provided for a strong president, although power of the president can technically be checked by popular elections and the Duma