1. Question: What is the origin of human life? Response: Life has emerged as a result of evolution;

2. The Teleological Argument Design (teleological) Argument Christians have traditionally supported the message of Genesis with the arguments from the cosmological argument of Aquinas (first cause), and design (the teleological argument). The most famous form of the teleological (design) argument was set out by William Paley in the eighteenth century.

3. The Teleological Argument Suppose you are walking across a heath, says Paley, and you knock your foot against a stone. You might think, if you were to think about it at all, that the stone had always been there. This would, in the circumstances, be a very logical answer. But if you were to come across a watch, then you would naturally ask where the watch had come from; you would not in this case naturally conclude that it had always been there. You would wonder who had made the watch and for what purpose. Paley uses this story as an analogy for the universe.

4. The Teleological Argument The next step in the story is to point out that the natural world also displays order, in fact an order far more complex than that found in the watch. Consider just one example, the human eye. Is it not a marvel of engineering? Could one design a better instrument of vision if one tried?

5. But if the order of the parts in the watch was best explained in terms of an intelligent watch maker, ought we not to posit an intelligent world-maker for the same reason? Indeed, the world-maker must be of infinite intelligence given that the natural world is complex beyond our imagination. The Teleological Argument

6. This is an argument from analogy. The strategy behind such arguments is to argue that because two (or more) objects have some property or properties in common, it is reasonable to assume that they are similar in other respects as well.

7. In this case the watch and the world as a whole have a certain property in common, the apparent ordering of their parts for certain ends (tele). And since we are comfortable saying that the watch could not come about by accident, but requires a watch-maker, it is argued that we ought to be comfortable saying that the world as a whole requires an intelligent maker as well. The Teleological Argument

8. We can formalise the argument as follows, making explicit all the hidden assumption contained in the story: 1) Disorder (or chaos) is the natural state of things (the law of entropy). 2) Order is always the effect of some purposive and intelligent agent. 3) However, the natural world displays order. 4) Therefore, the world has an intelligent maker.

9. Objections / Responses / Strengths / Weakness to the Teleological Argument David Hume’s OBJECTIONSChristian Responses 1) Analogy is too weak The design argument is an argument that is based on an analogy between the universe and a product of human design. The strength of an analogical argument depends on the extent of the similarities between the two things compared. Hume suggests that the similarities between a watch and the universe are not strong. Scientists describe the way the universe works in organic terms rather than mechanistic terms. The analogy between the universe and any product of human design is too weak to permit the conclusion drawn from it. Analogy may be weak, but meaning and purpose still evident in both the watch and the universe. (‘tele’ = end meaning or purpose) Christians accept this to argument to some extent. Researchers Hay, Ward and Hardy suggest (see pages 84 and 16 and 17) evidence points to man being more than mere machines. Where does the capacity to know, worship, empathise, and moralise come from? Watches cannot display this, but humans do. The question is how, and why? Hume may criticise, but he doesn’t offer satisfactory answer to this question.

10. Objections / Responses / Strengths / Weakness to the Teleological Argument David Hume’s OBJECTIONSChristian Responses 2) Design doesn’t imply a designer A major premise of the argument is that nature displays order or design. Hume questions whether this implies that there is an ordering or designing force. Why can matter not contain within itself the source of order and design? Design must imply a Designer is supported from the law of entropy David Hume asks ‘why can matter not have within itself the capacity for order and design’ but where did this intelligence come from? There is no evidence of intelligence in matter, and no evidence of intelligence in the material the universe is made from. Where did this intelligence that seems to create order and the appearance of design come from? Science supports the universal law of entropy, (increasing disorder), which compels matter to disorganise rather than organise. Paul Davies (see page 78) a physicist says it is God who has designed into the universe laws that express coherent, rational, elegance and a deep and purposeful meaning.

11. Objections / Responses / Strengths / Weakness to the Teleological Argument David Hume’s OBJECTIONSChristian Responses 3) Doesn’t tell us about God Even if we concede to the argument and admit that the evidence of order and design in the universe leads to the existence of a designer we are not entitled to conclude that the designer of the universe is either all powerful, all knowing or even good. Even if the universe did arise from a designing force, it may not have been a good force. It may be the work of a team of designers, or of an evil force, or perhaps even the bungled work of an inferior, junior designer. Doesn’t tell us about God, but still tells us there must be one Christians readily admit that this argument tells us nothing about the God of the Bible, but only about an ‘intelligence’ that designed it. In fairness to William Paley, the argument is not intended to ‘prove’ the existence of the God of the Bible, but to give support to believers in God. Secondly, this argument is based upon ‘natural revelation’ and not ‘special revelation’. The former tells us there is a God, but nothing about God. Whereas the latter tells us about God, who and what He is like.

12. The Theory of Evolution

13. The theory of evolution is a theory about how life began. It suggests that; all life has a common ancestry that can be traced back millions of years to single celled organisms, and before that to inanimate materials. life first emerged as a single celled organism when the world was covered in a rich soup-like liquid, which contained a lot of amino acids and other chemicals. lightning storms and other natural phenomena triggered chemical reactions. the composition of this organic soup, which covered the earth, was constantly changing.

14. The Theory of Evolution Evolutionists believe that a single cell emerged as part of this change, which had the ability to divide and reproduce. The theory of evolution is also applied to inanimate things and teaches that the universe (galaxies, stars) began from a chaotic and incomplete state and that the natural laws, which govern the universe, are adequate to explain its beginning or origin. Natural Selection, Survival of the Fittest and Mutations in DNA are the combined processes that make evolution work. Mutations are changes to genetic material that occurs at random throughout any living population (they also sometimes occur as a result of radiation or other factors). Mutations sometimes result in physical differences.

15. The Theory of Evolution Natural Selection The theory of evolution suggests that nature selects the changes that are most suited to the environment in which an organism lives. Of course, nature is not conscious and when scientists talk about nature selecting they are not talking of a conscious process. Natural selection is an automatic process whereby an organism will survive if it has the necessary features for living in the environment in which it exists and will die if it does not have these necessary features.

16. The Theory of Evolution Survival of the fittest Natural selection results in the survival of the fittest. The organisms, which are most suited to the environment, survive. This is because organisms are in competition for food and for space in which to live.. Those that are best adapted to survive do survive and those that are poorly adapted for the environment in which they must live will become extinct. The theory of evolutions says that, over the course of millions of years different organisms that are closely related have evolved and more complex forms of life have emerged through random mutations. Some of these have been selected for survival.

17. Evidence for theory of Evolution Biologist who support the theory of evolution cite, what they say, is much evidence in its favour: There are similarities in structure between different living things. This is what you would expect if all living things have a common ancestry. The fossil record reveals some creatures, which are now extinct but which, they believe, appear to be intermediates between one species and another.

18. Evidence for theory of Evolution There is evidence of mutation from scientific experiment and from observation of organisms; Some creatures have vestigial organs, which are organs that serve no purpose to that particular creature and often no longer function, but are very similar in structure to organs that related creatures possess. They say that there is evidence of evolution at work in populations of organisms which reduce rapidly e.g. in populations of bacteria, fruit flies and moths.

19. Charles Darwin and Evolution There are debates about the extent to which Darwin’s discoveries challenged his faith. In the “Origins of the Species,” Darwin attributes the evolutionary process to God, suggesting that it is a far grander way of creating a universe than by creating specially and separately each species of living thing. To be able to create a universe which has an inbuilt mechanism for development and advance is greater than creating everything in its final form so that it will survive and then decay.

20. Charles Darwin and Evolution Note: Dr James Moore has pointed out that contrary to popular belief it was not the theologians who opposed Darwin as much as the scientists. ‘It was a few theologians and many scientists who dismissed Darwinism and evolution.’ (Michael Poole, ‘Science and Belief.’) Though it is not clear whether Charles Darwin died a theist or an atheist, in his early life he was a committed Christian who studied Theology. His interest in biology was inspired by his sense of awe and wonder at the universe, which God had created. In his book, “The Origin of Species,” Darwin makes clear his view that the theory of evolution does not conflict with belief in God.

21. Charles Darwin and Evolution On the contrary, the discovery of the process of evolution ought to add to people’s sense of awe, wonder and amazement at the magnificence of the universe and the grandeur of the God who is responsible for it. “Thus from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being evolved…” (Charles Darwin – Origin of the Species).

22. THE CHALLENGES to Revelation of the theory of Evolution If life evolved from single cells over millions of years this challenges the idea that there is a creator God. Could creation have happened through random processes, or in other words, by chance? Is this science or blind faith?

23. THE CHALLENGES to Revelation of the theory of Evolution If life has evolved over millions of years then this suggests that the creation account in Genesis must be inaccurate where it suggests that God created the world in six days and on the seventh day he rested

24. THE CHALLENGES to Revelation of the theory of Evolution If human beings evolved from the apes, this challenges the Christian belief that humans were created as special creations, made in the image of God. Humans therefore should not think of themselves as having a special relationship with God or being in some way special within the universe. This is a challenge to the dignity of humankind. Christian faith focused on the idea of human dignity in God’s creation i.e. human beings created ‘in the image of God’. This idea was reinforced by the Christian belief in a separate human soul’. Darwin’s theory raised the question of what stage in the evolutionary process this human soul emerged.

25. THE CHALLENGES to Revelation of the theory of Evolution If all life has evolved through random processes of mutation, natural selection and survival of the fittest then this challenges belief in a creator God and in a God who sustains the universe. This is a challenge to the ‘design’ argument. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection presented an alternative explanation of how life on earth came about.

26. THE CHALLENGES to Revelation of the theory of Evolution It was a challenge to the Christian view that life had meaning and purpose. It became difficult to argue (due to the assumption of impersonal random processes) that human beings had a special place in the scheme of things, part of an overall divine plan, which gave meaning and purpose to life and the universe.

27. THE CHALLENGES to Revelation of the theory of Evolution The theory of evolution not only affected people’s attitude to the origin of life, becoming the greatest stumbling block to the belief in the Creator, but it also affected the way many theologians went about interpreting the Bible. Darwin’s theories caused many theologians to reinterpret the Bible in an evolutionary way. Theologians, such as Wellhausen (1844-1918) said that religion, too, must have evolved, so they reshuffled the Old Testament to make it fit an evolutionary picture. Therefore, they saw the early Chapters of Genesis as myths and folklore.

28. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution Theistic evolutionists suggest that the whole mechanism of evolutionary process was, and is, devised and controlled by God. Theistic evolutionists often see Genesis 1 as a pre-scientific and non-scientific account of creation, dealing with matters outside the scope of science.

29. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution They believe that the scientific theory of evolution explains how life emerged and developed and the Bible answers questions why God created the world and why it is the way it is. Religion tells us about purpose while science tells us about process.

30. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution They hold the viewpoint that evolution shows God’s creation to more incredible than we could ever have supposed or imagined in the past as God is behind the whole step-by-step process of the evolution of humanity.

31. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution Arthur Peacocke is a biochemist. He became a priest in 1971. He accepts the scientific theory of evolution and goes further. He believes that evolutionary theory can teach us something about the nature of God. He thinks that God has chosen to limit His omnipotence and omniscience. The process of evolution suggests divine humility. Much as a loving parent lets a child be and become, freely and without interference, so God lets creation make itself. “Evolution is a marvellous expression of how God is working in the world.” (Rev. Dr. Arthur Peacocke (taken from “Thinking Through Religion”)

32. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution Teilhard de Chardin - ‘Omega Point’ A Roman Catholic Priest, considered the theory of evolution to be of religious significance. He wrote about the whole universe developing and moving towards its maker in constant refinement and improvement. He talked about the spiritual journey as though it were an evolutionary process towards an ultimate ‘Omega Point’ of total moral, physical and spiritual evolutionary perfection.

33. Teilhard de Chardin uses poetic language when he refers to the theory of evolution. He believes that evolutionary ideas resemble the Christian understanding of the journey of faith that leads a believer to God. The poetic nature of his writing have enabled many believers to be uplifted by his writing. Teilhard de Chardin’s ideas, however, have been criticised philosophically and theologically. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution

34. Some scientists object that his use of the evolutionary theory goes far beyond the scope of science and turns the theory into a vision for the future. Some theologians objects that by linking theology to a scientific theory in this way there is a danger of losing theological truth as science develops and moves on to a new a new understanding of reality, perhaps discarding the theory of evolution. Responses Relationships to the Theory of Evolution Theistic creation (liberal Christians) relationship to the theory of Evolution

35. Historic creationism (sometimes called Special Creationism) relationship to the theory of Evolution HISTORICAL CREATIONISM Christians who are also scientists have responded to what they believe to be the outrageous claims of other scientists, school textbooks and the media when they say such things as: ‘evolution is virtually a proven fact’; and that ‘the universe is billions of years old’. These scientists have responded to these claims through research projects that examine the claims made by science and from this have developed a theory, which they call “The Theory of Special Creation”

36. Historic creationist (conservative Christian) relationship to the theory of Evolution God designed the universe out of nothing (ex- nihilo) as complete from the beginning. all types of living things were made by direct acts of God during the creation week Evolution within species does occur, as seen in the variety with each species of cat, dog, etc, and human;

37. Historic creationist (conservative Christian) relationship to the theory of Evolution evolution within species does occur according to natural selection and the survival of the fittest; They reject the belief that mutations can cause evolution, as they argue that any mutation is an overall loss of DNA information, and therefore never an advantage to the species in its long- term survival;

38. Historic creationist (conservative Christian) relationship to the theory of Evolution evolution does not occur from one species into another species; Whatever biological changes have occurred within species, have been only within created kinds, not from one kind to another i.e. ape to man.

39. Historic creationist (conservative Christian) relationship to the theory of Evolution  the fossil record is evidence of the fact that there are no intermediate stages in, what they see as the false theory of evolution. The fossil record, supports the Biblical account that there was a worldwide flood

40. Historic creationist (conservative Christian) relationship to the theory of Evolution Discoveries in micro-biology supports the belief in ‘Intelligent Design’ as shown by Michael Behe’s argument of ‘Irreducible complexity’ (see appendix)see appendix The discovery of the ‘symbiotic relationships’ that each and every living thing has with other living things for its existence and survival, and indeed the symbiotic relationship between the environment itself and living things. (see appendix)see appendix

41. Scientism (scientific materialism/naturalism) as a relationship to the theory of Evolution Scientism supports scientific enquiry into the origins of humanity, and accepts completely the theory of evolution. Since Darwin many scientist have continued to see Christianity as incompatible with evolution and are particularly critical of creationism.

42. Scientism (scientific materialism/naturalism) as a relationship to the theory of Evolution The current champion of this position is the Oxford zoologist, Richard Dawkings. His book, ‘The Blind Watchmaker’, has the subtitle ‘why the existence of evolution reveals a universe without design’. Dawkins sees no need at all to bring in the idea of a loving intelligent God. Like Bertrand Russell his views find its roots in the Logical Positivism of A.J. Ayer. Dawkins states: “Darwin made it possible to be an intellectually fulfilled atheist.”

43. Scientism (scientific materialism/naturalism) as a relationship to the theory of Evolution The particular stance that Dawkins takes is called scientism. This is the view that science can explain everything. In his book The Blind Watchmaker he dismisses any notion of their being a creator God and believes that anyone who argues for the existence of a God who creates human life is basing their belief on what he calls ‘Arguments from personal incredulity’. By this he means that because a person cannot think of any other explanation for the existence of the world they simply opt for belief in God. For Dawkins, the order in the world is not due to God, but rather is due to a blind, unconscious and automatic process.

44. Scientism (scientific materialism/naturalism) as a relationship to the theory of Evolution Dawkins also argues that humans have a selfish gene and that we are inherently selfish because that is the way in which we have developed to survive through natural selection. We act the way we do because we are effectively robots/machines programmed to preserve our gene pool and transfer it to the next generation.

45. Scientism (scientific materialism/naturalism) as a relationship to the theory of Evolution Dawkins would reject any claims that the book of Genesis says anything of value about the origins of human life. Dawkins rejects the existence of an immortal soul in human beings, but he still accepts that there is human dignity. This comes from the way in which an individual’s genetic code is passed on to future generations so that we have now reached the point where we can actually try to discover the meaning of life. This, for Dawkins, is the most marvellous aspect of human development, that humans can reflect on the fact that they are in the universe!

46. Scientism (scientific materialism/naturalism) as a relationship to the theory of Evolution Scientism includes ideas like:  Scientific method is the only route to reliable knowledge. Scientific theory like the theory of evolution can account fro the origins of moral thought and religious practice as well as the biological origins of human beings. (e.g. the moral principle that it is wrong to kill has developed because human beings who follow this principle are more likely to survive – societies who do not follow this principle would soon become extinct.)

47. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist Agree that natural selection can and does occur within species;

48. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Disagree that natural selection can result in evolution from one species into another; Agree that natural selection can and does result in evolution from one species into another; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

49. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Agree that mutations occur; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

50. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Disagree that mutations lead to an increase of information in DNA – they always demonstrate loss of information – therefore overall evolution from one species into another is disadvantaged; Agree that mutations can demonstrate evolutionary change; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

51. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Survival of the fittest is not evolution – Some people think (for example) that germs have evolved resistance to anti-septic agents, and that this somehow proves that evolution is occurring. When Doctors began to use anti-septics, some germs were already reisitant to these agents. These resistant germs, soon become the only ones left. They then get called ‘super-bugs’. The task now, is to develop anti-septic agents that will kill these. Essentially these are the same kinds of germs. Survival of the fittest is evidence of evolution; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

52. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Agree the fossil record is a record of many extinct species; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

53. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Disagree that the fossil record shows evidence of evolution of one species into another. Hundreds of so called ‘extinct’ species from (it is claimed by evolutionists) millions of years ago have been found alive and well today, and completely unchanged from their so-called millions of years old fossils; Also: after so called ‘millions of years’ fish are still fish, cows are still cows, horses, are horses, primates are still primates, and man is still man – simply because, these species were made distinct, and biology demonstrates that inter-breeding of these species results in either sterile ‘hybrids’ or nothing. Agree that the fossil record shows evidence of evolution of one species into another; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

54. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Many of the early ‘discoveries’ of ape-to-man fossils have been hoax’s (forgeries), which were used to further advance the claims of early evolutionists. See: British Museum and Piltdown Man. Agree that there have been hoax’s in the past, but this does not mean that evolution is not a fact; Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist

55. Summary of Responses/Relationships to Evolution theory Evidence of Symbiotic relationships indicate a God of creation who made the universe almost as we see it today. Agree that this points to a Creator God, but not necessarily to a creation much as we see it now. Historic Creationist Theistic Creationist