1. An Introduction to Rhetoric

2.  Something that sets humans apart from other creatures is our use of language. Learning to communicate using language is an extremely complex task.  Whether your first word was “milk” or “Mommy” or “no”, being able to communicate with others was a giant step in your own development.

3.  People communicate with each other through words, sign language, text messages, and touch.  Language, in all of its forms, has allowed us to work together to cultivate the land, build cities, combat diseases and even travel in space.

4.  Words have had a huge impact on the world. People have been able to introduce new ideas, spark action, and persuade others to do wonderful or even terrible things with words.

5.  As an example of the power of words and to gain an introduction to rhetorical devices, watch and/ or listen to the clip of Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech.“I Have a Dream”

6.  Beginning with philosophers, two terms have emerged to study the power of words:  Dialectic  Rhetoric

7.  Dialectic is the exchange of controversial ideas between people to come to some new solution.  The idea of dialectic is that two rational people can solve conflicting opinions through discussion.  In Ancient Greece, dialectic was considered the method to discovering universal truths.

8.  Rhetoric was originally considered the art of persuading others through oral language.  In other words, if you were to give a very convincing speech to the Members of Parliament compelling them to change a law, then you would be considered an accomplished speaker. Aristotle, a philosopher from Ancient Greece who wrote extensively on dialectic and rhetoric. Image in the public domain

9.  Ancient Greek philosophers believed that improving your skills as a public speaker improved you as a human being.  By the time of Aristotle, (in roughly the fourth century BCE) rhetoric was considered important because it could provide influence in the fields of law (in a courtroom) and politics (in a legislative assembly).  Today, with the growth of many forms of media, rhetoric may use not only oral language, but also visual and/or written language.

10.  Rhetoric is the counterpart of Dialectic. Both alike are concerned with such things as come, more or less, within the general ken of all men and belong to no definite science. Accordingly all men make use, more or less, of both; for to a certain extent all men attempt to discuss statements and to maintain them, to defend themselves and to attack others. Aristotle

11.  Now let’s examine three aspects of rhetoric:  Ethos  Pathos  Logos

12.  Ethos is tied to the speaker’s credibility in the eyes of his or her audience.  For example, if you know someone who has lied to you in the past, you are less likely to believe that person in the future.  Alternatively, if you are listening to a teacher explain a concept, his/her credibility will make you more likely to believe what he/she is saying.

13.  While you may try to be noble and honest when presenting an argument, the audience might decide that your personal motives are violating your ethos, and they will not believe you.  Let’s imagine that you are putting forth the argument that the licensing age for drivers be lowered to fourteen. If the audience knows that a car company will give you a free car if your speech is effective, your ethos will be low.

14.  Pathos uses emotion to influence the audience.  For example, when you receive an email message about a heart wrenching situation which ends with a request for a donation, the story’s use of emotions, its pathos, is what is appealing to you as a reader to open your wallet.

15.  Exaggeration and metaphor can often help appeal to emotion.  In many cases, though, pathos is not achieved in a single story or metaphor, but through the speaker’s passionate delivery.  The speaker who believes passionately in his/her topic, makes clear eye contact, uses his/her voice to demonstrate conviction, and builds up the emotion throughout the delivery is using pathos effectively.

16.  Another common use of pathos is to create a sense of community: the speaker will make the audience feel welcome and popular for believing the message of the rhetoric.  Conversely, anyone in the audience who disagrees will be made to feel rejected and/or inferior. Propaganda will often use pathos to communicate its message in this way.

17.  Logos uses reason to create a persuasive argument.  When a speaker uses logos, he/she will often rely on facts, statistics, and logic to prove an argument to the audience. The use of logos will often make the speaker appear more reliable and credible, enhancing the effect of ethos as well.

18.  Logos will often rely upon inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning explains what is known and tries to draw conclusions, moving from the specific to the general.  For example, every computer relies on an energy source therefore all computers must require an energy source.  Aristotle, however, focused upon deductive reasoning, which moves from the general to the specific.  For example: all snakes are reptiles; the garter snake is a type of snake found in North America; the garter snake must be a reptile.

19. Bias and “Baloney”

20.  With all due respect to the lunch meat, the spoken word is as susceptible to bias and complete untruths (also known as “baloney”) as any other means of communication. In order to use the power of the spoken word in positive ways, listeners must be able detect bias and “baloney”.  “Baloney” may involve lying, making up facts, or the creation of entirely new stories. There are, for example, websites which may appear real that have been created to mislead, amuse, or manipulate.

21.  Example  Click here to visit a website which purports to be a place where dogs can retire. This is an example of a very professional looking website. It is slick and appears close to credible. Clicking on the disclaimer at the bottom of the page, however, reveals the truth: the page was created in jest.here  Even more common is something you may already have studied and have probably experienced on some level in your own life: bias. Bias is the demonstration of a particular leaning or partiality towards a certain subject.

22.  Example  In Geography, for example, bias can influence how a three-dimensional item, like the planet, is depicted in a two-dimensional form, like a map. Consider the following two world maps

23. People in Medieval Times were biased in their belief that the world was chiefly covered in land. This medieval map is clearly incomplete. Despite there being more water than land on Earth, the map demonstrates a bias towards land. As human beings live on land, this is a bias of perspective. This is unintentional bias, since people at this time had limited understanding in this regard.

24. Political World Map.

25.  This second map is probably closer to the way you picture the world; however, it too, is biased. This map also represents places in politically biased ways. For example, some lands are in dispute between groups of people, such as Tibet. A map which includes Tibet would be biased towards Tibet; a map which shows Tibet as part of China would display bias towards the Republic of China.

26.  The map also cuts out places to the extreme North and South, showing a bias towards lands that are more densely populated by humans. This may seem insignificant, but consider another element: the map also places North and South America to the left, Africa and Europe in the middle and Asia and Australia to the right. Why? It could be argued that this bias emphasizes the close relationship between the Americas and Africa and Europe, while making Asia and Australia appear as further away. Bias can be significant.

27.  Consider the following example of two photographs taken after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans that were published by Yahoo! News. What is biased?

29.  The caption displays bias of diction (word choice) since both people are carrying food but one is described as “looting” and the other as “finding”. In order to decide which point of view is the most responsible, review the information below.  © 2007 Media Awareness Network, Reproduced with permission:Media Awareness Network  It is Yahoo!’s policy to use photo captions that are provided by the photographers and not edit them before posting the images online. These captions caused many to question whether black people were being treated fairly in media coverage of post- hurricane events.

30.  In response to the ensuing controversy, the journalists associated with the photos claimed that it was not an issue of race, but rather a question of semantics over the terms ‘looting’ as opposed to ‘finding’. According to Jack Stokes, the director of media relations for AP, Dave Martin, the photographer of the first picture, personally witnessed the subject of his photograph entering a grocery store and leaving with items, thus witnessing the man looting.  Whereas the photographer of the second photo, Chris Graythen, didn’t witness the subjects of his photograph taking the goods. “I wrote the caption about the two people who 'found' the items. I believed in my opinion, that they did simply find them, and not 'looted' them in the definition of the word. The people were swimming in chest deep water, and there were other people in the water, both white and black. I looked for the best picture. There were a million items floating in the water — we were right near a grocery store that had 5+ feet of water in it. It had no doors. The water was moving, and the stuff was floating away. These people were not ducking into a store and busting down windows to get electronics. They picked up bread and cokes that were floating in the water. They would have floated away anyhow.”

31.  Whenever you communicate with others, you probably display some bias. When bias is severe, like the Hurricane Katrina example, it can lead to harmful effects. For more information about bias, especially bias in the media, check out the Media Awareness Network where a search for “bias” will give you information about how different groups are misrepresented. As well, you will learn ways in which to detect bias, like prejudice and discrimination, in the media.Media Awareness Network

32.  Another type of bias involves leaving important details out of the picture. This is called a bias of omission and it can also affect consequences. For example, if a student wanted parental permission to go to a party at a friend’s house, and he/she chose to leave out the detail that the party will be unsupervised, he/she would be presenting the case to the parents with a bias of omission.

33. Is the information accurate? Where does the information come from? Is the source of information reliable? Would a different source provide different information? Is the person communicating going to benefit from the message? How? Is something being left out? Why?

34.  Is there any exaggeration? Why?  What is being emphasized (What comes first? What is repeated?)? Why?  What opinion is being developed? Is it clear?  What diction (word choice) is used?  Could other diction have a different effect?  What tone is being used? Why?

35.  Bias is a reality that you will deal with not only in school, but also when you surf the web, watch TV, or read the newspaper. Throughout this unit, try to consider the bias of the message. Rhetoric involves convincing others, which often means biased messages. Deciding when communication goes from “persuasive and compelling” to “manipulative and biased” is not always clear. Being mindful of bias is the responsibility of both the speaker and the audience.

36. Reading the Bard’s Words

37.  William Shakespeare is considered to be one of the greatest writers of all time. He is, indeed, a master of rhetoric. Yet, you’ve probably noticed that, in school, you often read his plays even though he wrote them to be performed on stage.

38.  One of the reasons that his writing has withstood the test of time is its ability to be interpreted and performed in so many ways. Each actor brings his or her own meaning to the text to make it come alive once again.

39.  Another reason that Shakespeare has withstood the test of time is his relevancy to a modern audience. His selection of themes is as universal to humanity today as during the Renaissance. His characters display emotions and needs similar to those felt now.  One way in which to explore the power of language is by learning how to read Shakespeare’s language with meaning and expression. This activity also provides you with a chance to make connections between Shakespeare’s words and current events.

40.  Example  Have you ever heard politicians try to persuade an audience? Consider the example below from Shakespeare’s famous tragedy, Julius Caesar. It can be extremely difficult to decide which message is most credible and truthful. The art of rhetoric plays a huge part, as the speakers must balance ethos, pathos and logos.

41.  Julius Caesar is set in Ancient Rome but deals with modern ideas, which include ambition, idealism and deceit. Rome is ruled by Julius Caesar; with each new victory on the battlefield, Caesar gains more prestige and power. Brutus, a friend of Caesar’s, fears the leader’s ambition. Along with other politicians, Brutus conspires to kill Caesar.  At this part in the play, Brutus speaks at Caesar’s funeral. His speech is followed by that of Mark Anthony, who has remained loyal to Caesar. Read each of their speeches carefully and decide which one is the most convincing rhetoric.

42. Read Brutus’ speech.

43.  Check Your Understanding of Brutus’ speech:  Why does Brutus claim he killed Caesar? Brutus claims that he killed Caesar to save Rome. He says he would answer a friend of Caesar’s, “Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved/Rome more.” He supports this answer with ideas, such as Rome being made up of slaves with Caesar alive and free men with Caesar dead.

44.  Which flaw does Brutus charge Caesar with? Brutus argues that Caesar had many positive qualities but one flaw worthy of his murder: ambition. Brutus says, “As Caesar loved me, I weep for him;/as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was/valiant, I honour him: but, as he was ambitious, I/slew him.”

45.  Which element of rhetoric (ethos, pathos, logos) does Brutus appeal to most strongly? Brutus seems to be appealing most to pathos, using the crowd’s sense of honour and justice. He asks, “Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman?” and “Who is here so vile that will not love his country?” to almost shame the crowd into agreement.

46.  After reading the speech given by Brutus, the public seems to understand that the murder was done to protect the freedom of Romans. However, they are about to hear a second speech that offers a different point of view.

47.  Now, read Mark Anthony’s speech as he secretly tries to exact revenge for the murder of Caesar.

48.  Check Your Understanding of Anthony’s speech:  Mark Anthony does not like Brutus, yet he keeps calling Brutus “honourable.” Why? Mark Anthony’s ability to keep giving his language two meanings is the genius of his speech. For example, he says, “For Brutus is an honourable man;/ So are they all, all honourable men—/Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.” By mentioning their honour then quickly drawing the crowd’s attention back to the victim, he is showing that the murderers are not honourable. Each time he repeats “honourable”, he shows that Brutus is, in fact, the opposite.

49.  Mark Anthony says, “You all did love him once, not without cause:/What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?” Is he appealing to ethos, pathos or logos? Mark Anthony is using what sounds like logic (logos) when he says that if you can love Caesar, you should also be allowed to mourn him. Yet, this simple logic is most appealing because it also appeals to pathos. The audience’s ego is being appealed to when they are told they had good reason to love Caesar. Mark Anthony is creating a sense of “us” (those who love Caesar) versus “them” (the “honourable” men who killed him).

50.  Mark Anthony refers to specific events, such as when he mentions Caesar “hath brought many captives home to Rome/ Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill” and “You all did see that on the Lupercal/I thrice presented him a kingly crown,/Which he did thrice refuse.” Why would he mention these events? Again, Mark Anthony is appealing to logos, using specific evidence to support his claim. This is particularly effective since it undermines the ethos of Brutus who has already spoken, suggesting vaguely that Caesar was justly killed for the love of Rome.

51.  In the end, the crowd supports Mark Anthony’s emotionally charged speech which uses many more concrete examples than Brutus’s idealistic appeal. This turning point changes the lives of everyone present.  Many critics suggest that Mark Anthony’s speech is considered a model for modern political speeches. It blends the use of ethos, pathos and logos smoothly to appeal to the crowd. By appealing to the crowd as if he were one of them, Mark Anthony distances himself from the murderers and shows how out of touch they are with the people.

52.  Now, that you have the basic idea behind the speech, let’s consider how to speak these lines rather than simply read them.

53.  First, consider when to stop. Rather than stopping at the end of the line as it appears on the page, stop for pauses when you come across punctuation. Commas are short pauses while colons and periods are longer pauses.  Next, allow punctuation to be your guide to knowing when to shout (exclamation points) and when to use inflections to ask a question (question marks).  Finally, consider what impression you want the audience to have of the characters. Is Brutus confident or confused? Is Mark Anthony fearful or bold? How quickly you read, the volume of your voice, as well as which words you emphasize will develop each character differently.

54. Techniques of the Art

55.  Plato, the Greek philosopher, once explained that rhetoric is the “art of enchanting the soul.” While you’ve already learned some of the basic elements of rhetoric, the dangers of bias, and the craft of Shakespeare, it is important to take a closer look at some of the tools that are used in oral communication if you are to enchant an audience. Greek philosopher, Plato.

56.  A speaker’s toolbox includes many devices each of which meets at least one of the following purposes: emphasis, clarity, association, organization, transition, decoration, and variety.

57.  Hadout: a speaker’s tool box  Try the following interactive activity which reviews some of the devices in relation to Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech.“I Have a Dream”

58.  Identify the device used in the following: An old, beat up, black truck was creeping its way along the road.  This is an example of personification, since the truck was creeping.

59.  Identify the device used in the following: There must be tolerance in any workplace; tolerance that allows each person to accept others; tolerance that allows us to be ourselves.  This is an example of anaphora, since tolerance is repeated three times.

60.  Identify the device is used in the following: The teacher descended upon the exams, sank her talons into their pages, ripped the answers to shreds and then, perching in her chair, began to digest.  There is an implied comparison between the teacher and bird of prey. This can be considered both a metaphor (because of the comparison) and hyperbole since the phrase exaggerates the teacher’s ferocity.

61.  Identify the device is used in the following: It isn’t very serious. My house burned down, I lost my job, and my ankle has been sprained.  This is an understatement since the events listed are not at all trivial.

62.  Identify the device is used in the following: “What a beautiful day,” he said as he opened his umbrella.  This is irony, since the umbrella indicates that the weather is probably not rendering the day lovely.

63.  Identify the device is used in the following: Pinocchio loved her as any real boy would.  This is a pun, since there is a play on the word “would” (it could also be “wood”, making fun of Pinocchio for being a puppet).

64.  While these tools are useful, it is important to consider that writing for an audience who is listening to you is different than writing to an audience who is reading your work. A listener cannot go back and reread a sentence lacking clarity nor can a listener stop to look up a word in the dictionary.

65.  To captivate an audience, it might be worthwhile to consider the advice of twentieth century writer and social critic George Orwell. He gave the following advice in his 1946 essay, ”Politics and the English Language”:

66. 1. Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. 2. Never use a long word where a short one will do. 3. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. 4. Never use the passive [voice] where you can use the active [voice]. 5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent. 6. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.”

67.  By applying the tools in the Speaker’s Toolbox, as well as considering Orwell’s rules, it is possible to create captivating works.

68. Words as a Force for Social Change

69.  Have you ever had an idea that you think might make the lives of others better? Ideas that provoke social change are big ideas indeed.

70.  A lot of big ideas have probably started out sounding more than a little strange to those who heard them for the first time. However, many big ideas go on to change the world. Imagine that you were the first person in a serfdom to suggest that no human being should be considered property and that all humans deserve the same rights. Many people might have thought this was a preposterous idea! Yet, today, many parts of the world embrace the notion of equality for all and people are trying to spread this change across the planet. This big idea is taking shape.

71.  One very diverse contemporary group of people who often express big ideas are the members of the Spoken Word community. Spoken Word refers to any poetry that is performed aloud. When you read Shakespeare aloud, you are performing Spoken Word and when you are listening to a rap song you are listening to Spoken Word. As Mark Miazga, a Professor at Michigan State University, explains, “One of the hallmarks of the current movement is its diversity.... Spoken Word has a rough-edged, populist attitude, intent on spreading the word of all poetry, and carries a democratizing energy.”

72.  While the best way to understand how Spoken Word can captivate and energize an audience is to see a live performance, listening to poetry that is meant to be heard will give you a glimpse of how well artists use language to create feeling, convey a message and provoke thought.

73.  Amani is a contemporary artist who performs all across Canada and the world performing. Listen to her poem titled Heart of a Poet.Heart of a Poet

74.  What features stand out most for you in the performance?  Clearly, this is a personal response but an important question to answer nonetheless.  Did you react to her style (changes in volume; pace; enunciation; inflection; emphasis)? Or, did you respond more to the ideas themselves (that her poetry is not a passing phase; that the thoughts, language and expression come from her heart)?  Or, was it something else entirely?

75.  Amani says that she “will give you a coronary occlusion when you hear [her] rhymes”. A “coronary occlusion” is a blockage of a blood vessel. What technique is she using?  This image is an example of hyperbole, since the poet is exaggerating the effect her words will have upon you.

76.  In Amani’s poem, she says “prolific thoughts can overtake my soul.” What does the word “prolific” mean? a) kind b) angry c) abundant d) scarce  In this case, prolific means abundant. For example, a “prolific writer”, someone like Stephen King or Margaret Atwood, has published many items on a variety of subjects.

77.  Amani says, “And this is not just some Poetic Passing Phase; some didactic, educational, edifying way of purging myself.” What techniques is she using in these lines?  “And this is not just some Poetic Passing Phase; some didactic, educational, edifying way of purging myself” contains many techniques.  For example, there is alliteration in Poetic Passing. There is strong diction and parallelism in “didactic, educational, edifying”.  If you read the lines aloud, you’ll probably recognize a rhythm to the words, as well as a tendency to hear the internal rhyme between “phase” and “way” (the use of assonance underscores the long “a” sounds).  Did you find any others?

78.  Did you know that “Slam” refers to a Spoken Word competition where poets square off on stage? Slams and Open Mic Nights (when any person can take a turn on stage) are popular in many big cities across North America.  Have you thought of a big idea yet? Does it deal with the environment? Human rights? Body image? Poverty? Something else?

79.  One contemporary problem that has garnered a great deal of media attention is gun violence. Amani wrote a poem as a plea for change to the people most affected by this violence.  Listen to Amani’s poem titled This is Livicated.This is Livicated

80.  After listening to “This is Livicated”, the use of anaphora probably stands out. Which line is Amani emphasizing through this device?  “It is time” is repeated frequently throughout the poem, emphasizing the poet’s message as well as the urgency of her plea.

81.  Why does Amani create a word, “livicate”, rather than simply dedicate her poem?  Amani considers the word “dedicate” a pun, since it sounds like the word “dead.” She explicitly explains, “So, I am going to livicate, not dedicate this poem cause, I don’t want to use the word dead no more.” This is an example of how language can both enslave and empower. By creating the word “livicate”, Amani puts emphasis on the living and creates a much more positive tone.

82.  Amani pronounces, “Too many people searching for answers, too much violence, too many guns, too much sadness in the community, too many mothers and fathers losing their sons.” In addition to the rhythm and rhyme (guns and sons), what other device is the poet relying upon?  The use of “too” can be considered anaphora, but this is a much better example of parallelism. Both devices create emphasis, providing the listener with an opportunity to focus.

83.  Notice how Amani is using her own voice, not only with the way she speaks, sings and projects, but also with the words she chooses. Her voice comes through her diction, using expressions like “it is blowing my mind” and “walking off, but showing you could be rough”. Her personality and perspective are made clear.  You have your own voice. It is influenced by everything around you (your friends, your family, the media…) but it is uniquely yours. As you find your voice in your writing, you’ll likely be more connected and proud of the texts you create.