1. Section 7

2. What You Will Learn in this Module Discuss the factors that explain why long-run growth rates differ so much among countries Explain the challenges to growth posed by scarcity of natural resources, environmental degradation, and efforts to make growth sustainable Section 7 | Module 39

3. Why Growth Rates Differ A number of factors influence differences among countries in their growth rates. Some countries add to their physical capital more rapidly than others, through high rates of investment spending. Some countries add to their human capital through education. Some countries engage in or encourage research and development (R&D) spending to create new technologies and prepare them for practical use. Section 7 | Module 39

4. China’s Students Are Catching Up Section 7 | Module 39

5. F YIF YIF YIF YI F YIF YIF YIF YI Inventing R& D Thomas Edison is best known as the inventor of the light bulb and the phonograph. But his biggest invention was “research and development”! In 1875 Edison created something new: his Menlo Park, New Jersey laboratory employed 25 men full-time to generate new products and processes for business. He created an organization whose purpose was to create new ideas year after year. Section 7 | Module 39

6. The Role of Government in Promoting Economic Growth Governments play a direct role in building infrastructure: roads, power lines, ports, information networks, and other parts of an economy’s physical capital. Governments also play an important indirect role in making high rates of private investment spending possible. Much of an economy’s human capital is the result of government spending on education. Much important R&D is done by government agencies. Section 7 | Module 39

7. The Role of Government in Promoting Economic Growth Political stability and protection of property rights are crucial ingredients in long-run economic growth. Even when governments aren’t corrupt, excessive government intervention can be a brake on economic growth. If large parts of the economy are supported by government subsidies, protected from imports, or otherwise insulated from competition, productivity tends to suffer because of a lack of incentives. Section 7 | Module 39

8. F YIF YIF YIF YI F YIF YIF YIF YI The Brazilian Breadbasket In recent years, Brazil’s economy has made a strong showing, especially in agriculture. This success depends on exploiting a natural resource, the tropical savannah land known as the cerrado. A combination of three factors changed this land into a useable resource: -Technological progress due to research and development -Improved economic policies -Addition of physical capital Section 7 | Module 39

9. Is World Growth Sustainable? Long-run economic growth is sustainable if it can continue in the face of the limited supply of natural resources and the impact of growth on the environment. Differing views about the impact of limited natural resources on long-run economic growth turn on the answers to three questions: -How large are the supplies of key natural resources? -How effective will technology be at finding alternatives to natural resources? -Can long-run economic growth continue in the face of resource scarcity? Section 7 | Module 39

10. The Real Price of Oil, 1949-2013 Section 7 | Module 39

11. U.S. Oil Consumption and Growth over Time Section 7 | Module 39

12. Economic Growth and the Environment The limits to growth arising from environmental degradation are more difficult to overcome because overcoming them requires effective government intervention. The emission of greenhouse gases is clearly linked to growth, and limiting them will require some reduction in growth. However, the best available estimates suggest that a large reduction in emissions would require only a modest reduction in the growth rate. Section 7 | Module 39

13. Climate Change and Growth Section 7 | Module 39

14. Economic Growth and the Environment There is broad consensus that government action to address climate change and greenhouse gases should be in the form of market-based incentives, like a carbon tax or a cap and trade system. It will also require rich and poor countries to come to some agreement on how the cost of emissions reductions will be shared. Section 7 | Module 39

15. Summary 1.The large differences in countries’ growth rates are largely due to differences in their rates of accumulation of physical and human capital as well as differences in technological progress. 2.A prime factor is differences in savings and investment rates. 3.Technological progress is largely a result of research and development, or R&D. 4.Government actions that help growth are the building of infrastructure. 5.Government actions that retard growth are political instability, the neglect or violation of property rights, corruption, and excessive government intervention. Section 7 | Module 39

16. Summary 6.Economists generally believe that environmental degradation poses a greater problem for whether long- run economic growth is sustainable than natural resource scarcity. 7.Addressing environmental degradation requires effective governmental intervention, but the problem of natural resource scarcity is often well handled by the market price response. Section 7 | Module 39

17. Section 7

18. What You Will Learn in this Module Explain how long-run economic growth is represented in macroeconomic models Model the effects of economic growth policies Section 7 | Module 40

19. Actual and Potential Output from 1989 to 2013 Section 7 | Module 40

20. Long-run Economic Growth and the Production Possibilities Curve Economic growth can be shown on a production possibility curve as a shift outward of the curve. There is a trade-off between investment and consumer goods. Depreciation is a loss in the value of physical capital due to wear, age or obsolescence. Some investment is needed to counteract depreciation. Section 7 | Module 40

21. Economic Growth Section 7 | Module 40

22. The Trade-off Between Investment and Consumer Goods Section 7 | Module 40

23. Long-run Economic Growth and the Aggregate Demand - Aggregate Supply Model Recall that in the aggregate demand-aggregate supply model, the long-run aggregate supply curve shows the relationship between the aggregate price level and the quantity of aggregate output supplied when all prices are flexible. Increases in potential output are reflected in a rightward shift of the LRAS curve. Decreases in potential output are reflected in a leftward shift of the LRAS curve. Section 7 | Module 40

24. The Long-Run Aggregate Supply Curve Section 7 | Module 40

25. Long Run Growth and the LRAS Curve Section 7 | Module 40

26. Distinguishing Between Long-Run Growth and Short-Run Fluctuations The points along a production possibility curve are achievable if all of an economy’s resources are used efficiently. If the economy experiences macroeconomic fluctuations due to a recession, production falls to a point inside the production possibility curve. Long-run growth will appear as an outward shift of the production possibility curve. Section 7 | Module 40

27. Distinguishing Between Long-Run Growth and Short-Run Fluctuations In the aggregate demand-aggregate supply model, fluctuations of actual aggregate output around potential output are illustrated by shifts in aggregate demand or short-run aggregate supply. Long-run economic growth is illustrated by a shift of the LRAS curve. The LRAS curve demonstrates NO relationship with price level and RGDP because society adjusts or “gets used to” the prices. The SRAS curve has a positive relationship between price level and RGDP—producers are responsive to price level. Section 7 | Module 40

28. From the Short Run to the Long Run Section 7 | Module 40

29. Summary 1.Long-run economic growth can be seen on the production possibility curve as a shift outward of the curve. 2.An economy must have some investment in capital goods to counteract depreciation. 3.Long-run economic growth can be seen on the aggregate demand-aggregate supply model in the LRAS curve. 4.Short-run fluctuations can be seen in the production possibility curve in a movement inside the curve. 5.Short-run fluctuations can be seen in the aggregate demand- aggregate supply model as movements of the aggregate demand curve or the short-run aggregate supply curve. Section 7 | Module 40