1. Aggregate Demand

2. Define aggregate demand
Explain the determinants of aggregate demand

3. Introduction to Aggregate Demand
Aggregate Demand: The total demand for a nation’s goods and services in a period of time at a range of price levels.

4. Introduction to Aggregate Demand
Components of aggregate demand: (Consumers of a nations output)
C: Households, demand goods and services for Consumption.
I: Firms, who demand capital goods, in which they invest.
G: Government, which spends on public goods and services.
Xn: Export income from abroad, Expenditure from abroad (export) minus Expenditure on imports.
Total Aggregate Demand C + I + G + Xn

5. Determinants of Aggregate Demand Household Consumption
Level of household income. At higher incomes, consumption rises, and at lower incomes, consumption decreases.
Wealth: value of a households assets minus its liabilities. If wealth rises, households feel richer and consume more. If wealth declines, households feel poorer and consume less.
Real interest rates: If interest rates are higher, households will prefer to save more and consume less. At lower interest rate, consumption is higher, and savings is less.
 Household debt: At high debt levels, households must allocate more income to paying off debts, therefore consumption falls.
Household confidence: If households are confident about future incomes or employment opportunities, they are likely to spend more now, so consumption will increase.

6. Determinants of Aggregate Demand
Firms’ Investment
Real interest rates: At lower interest rates, firms will borrow more money and buy new capital equipment. If interest are higher, firms will invest less.
Expectations of firms (confidence): If firms are confident about future business opportunities, higher investment now. If expectations are poor, firms will invest less now.

7. Determinants of Aggregate Demand
Government Spending
Fiscal policy: Level of taxation and government spending.
Government debt: More debt may mean more government spending in the short-run, but debt must be paid off in the long run, so taxes have to be raised and government spending must fall if there is too much government debt.

8. Determinants of Aggregate Demand
Net Export
Income of foreign consumers: If foreign incomes rise, demand for exports increase and net exports rise.
Domestic incomes rise: As domestic households get richer, they will demand more imports, so net export spending may fall.
Exchange rates: If the currency gets stronger, exports will be more expensive to foreign consumers, so net exports will fall. If the currency gets weaker, foreigners will demand more of the country’s goods and net exports will rise.

9. Aggregate Supply

10. Define aggregate supply
Explain the determinants of aggregate supply
Use AD and AS to analyse changes in macroeconomic equilibrium

11. Introduction to Aggregate Supply
Aggregate Supply: A curve representing the volume of good and services produced within the economy at a given price level.

12. Introduction to Aggregate Supply
Short-Run: The period of time over which the level of wages in a nation are fixed.. Also know as fixed-wage period.
Recessionary Gap: is a situation when the real GDP is lower than the potential GDP at the full employment level.

13. Introduction to Aggregate Supply
Short Run Aggregate Supply (SRAS) 
Short run aggregate supply (SRAS): Shows the total planned output when prices in the economy can change but the prices and productivity of all factor inputs e.g. wage rates and the state of technology are held constant.

14. Determinant of Aggregate Supply (Short Run)
Changes in Business Cost
Changes in unit labour costs: Unit labour costs are wage costs adjusted for the level of productivity. A rise in unit labour costs might be brought about by firms paying higher wages or a fall in the level of productivity.
Commodity prices: Changes to raw material costs and other components e.g. the prices of oil, copper, rubber, iron ore, aluminium and other inputs will affect a firm’s costs
Exchange rates: Costs might be affected by a change in the exchange rate which causes fluctuations in the prices of imported products. A fall (depreciation) in the exchange rate increases the costs of importing raw materials and component supplies from overseas

15. Determinant of Aggregate Supply (Short Run)
Changes in Business Cost
Government taxation and subsidies:
An increase in taxes to meet environmental objectives will cause higher costs and an inward shift in the SRAS curve
Lower duty on petrol and diesel would lower costs and cause an outward shift in SRAS
The price of imports:
Cheaper imports from a lower-cost country has the effect of shifting out SRAS
A reduction in a tariff on imports or an increase in the size of an import quota will also boost the supply available at each price level
The exchange rate affects how much a business must pay for imported raw materials and components 

16. Introduction to Aggregate Supply
Long-Run: The period of time over which the level of wages in a nation are flexible. In the long-run, wages will adjust to the level of demand in the economy. Also known as the flexible-wage period.

17. Introduction to Aggregate Supply
Long Run Aggregate Supply (LRAS) 
Shows total planned output when both prices and average wage rates can change – it is a measure of a country’s potential output and the concept is linked to the production possibility frontier

18. A Quick Over View

19. Aggregate Supply
AD Shift to the right

20. Determinants of Aggregate Supply
Changes in natural rate of growth of output
Improvements in productivity and efficiency or an increase in the stock of capital and labour resources cause the LRAS curve to shift out. This is shown in the diagram below.

21. Determinants of Aggregate Supply
Changes in natural rate of growth of output
Expanding the labour supply: e.g. by improving work incentives and relaxing controls on inward labour migration. In the long term many countries must find ways of overcoming the effects of an ageing population and a rising ratio of dependents to active workers

22. Determinants of Aggregate Supply
Changes in natural rate of growth of output
Incease Productivity of labour: Iinvestment in training of the labour force and improvements in the quality of management of human resources. Productivity can be measured in several ways including output per person employed and output per hour worked.

23. Determinants of Aggregate Supply
Changes in natural rate of growth of output
Fiscal policy: Level of taxation and government spending.
Government debt: More debt may mean more government spending in the short-run, but debt must be paid off in the long run, so taxes have to be raised and government spending must fall if there is too much government debt.
Improve mobility of labour to reduce certain types of unemployment for example structural unemployment caused by occupational immobility of labour. If workers have more skills and flexibility, they will find it easier to get work. Conversely when unemployment remains high, the economy loses out on potential output and there is a waste of scarce resources
Expanding the capital stock – i.e. increase investment and research and development
Increase business efficiency by promoting greater competition within markets
Stimulate invention and innovation – to promote lower costs and improvements in the dynamic efficiency of markets. Innovation creates new goods and services and encourages investment

24. Determinants of Aggregate Supply
Changes in natural rate of growth of output
Improved mobility of Labour: Reduce certain types of unemployment for example structural unemployment caused by occupational immobility of labour. If workers have more skills and flexibility, they will find it easier to get work. Conversely when unemployment remains high, the economy loses out on potential output and there is a waste of scarce resources
Expanding the capital stock – i.e. increase investment and research and development
Increase business efficiency by promoting greater competition within markets
Stimulate invention and innovation – to promote lower costs and improvements in the dynamic efficiency of markets. Innovation creates new goods and services and encourages investment

25. Determinants of Aggregate Supply
Changes in natural rate of growth of output
Expanding the capital stock: Increase investment and research and development.
Increase business efficiency: Promoting greater competition within markets.
Stimulate invention and innovation: Promote lower costs and improvements in the dynamic efficiency of markets. Innovation creates new goods and services and encourages investment.