1. DANZIGER CHAPTER TWO Political Beliefs

2. This chapter attempts to: a- develop a classification about individuals’ orientations toward the political world. (Political orientation refers to political belief held by individuals.) b- characterize the dominant forms of political behavior, and some fundamental systems of beliefs (political ideologies.)

3. 3 Types of Political Beliefs 1- Cognitive 2- Affective 3- Evaluative Cognitive orientations -They are determined by our own factual knowledge about politics. -They include what are considered as “political facts” by the individual. -Such facts might be correct or totally wrong.

4. 4 This knowledge might include such facts as the names of political leaders, the policies supported by political parties, events in political history, the features of constitutions and so on. -Switzerland is a member of the EU. -British constitution is unwritten. -Nigerian regions have special representation in the national assembly.

5. 5 -Japan is an industrialized state. -American president is elected by people. -Saudi Arabia is ruled by a monarch. -Italy has usually been ruled by coalition governments. -

6. 6 2- Affective Orientation: It includes any feelings or emotions held by a person about a political phenomenon, for example: What do you feel when you see/hear that: -a group of people demonstrate against your country? (angry) -the political party you support in the elections is voted out of office? (desperate)

7. 7 3- Evaluative Orientation: - It refers to the individual interpretation of facts through using knowledge and feelings about them. - Your opinion about a political issue, such as the state’s policy on privatization, can be grounded in many different kinds of cognitive and affective orientations that are combined into an evaluation.

8. 8 Collecting information about political orientations Public opinion polls - We collect useful information about what people think about a particular issue. - This information obtained through a public opinion poll is stronger than the information obtained through a discussion with a few friends.

9. 9 Belief System Among Ordinary People There are important differences between the elite and the ordinary people in the nature and structure of their belief system. Elements of ordinary people belief system *Political issues have low importance in relation to other concerns in people’s life. Most people do not give political issues first priority.

10. 10 *People tend to focus attention on concrete issues rather than on abstract political concepts. (The salary you receive is more important than the type of ownership of the place you work at.) *Interest and knowledge are greater on short-term issue than on longer-term ones.

11. 11 *Fundamental beliefs are relatively stable But short-term political opinions may change. *The individual can hold contradictory positions. (for example a person might support the right to form political parties but reject the right of communists to have their own party).

12. 12 *The content of beliefs is often incorrect. (Some people do not know who elects the president in their country)

13. 13 Belief System Among Elites (Political elite: Those who have relatively high levels of interest and involvement in politics.) *Elite belief systems are based on high levels of abstraction, accuracy, complexity, stability, and breadth (comprehensiveness). *Despite the emphasis on consistency among beliefs, individuals in the elite can support core values that are in conflict.

14. 14 The belief systems of the elite are important because elites: - have a major role in politics and - can influence the belief system of common people.

15. 15 Political Culture refers to common political orientations or beliefs that characterize a large group of individuals. There are two ways to investigate political culture in a given country: 1) National character studies -There is a national character in each country. We can predict political behavior based on such characteristics. (American pol. culture, Russian political culture etc.)

16. 16 These studies do not claim that everyone fits the national character profile, but they argue that the profile is accurate for the politically relevant strata. The top ruling group in Britain is defined in terms of English national character, which is based on the following elements: control of emotions, a sense of correctness reliance on “old boy connections”

17. 17 These national character studies have been criticized because they have little capacity to explain the complex political behaviors within a country.

18. 18 2) Survey research -We can understand the nature of political culture by the use of survey research, - This is a more systematic and scientifically acceptable method. - A carefully selected sample of the population is asked a series of questions to collect information about individual political beliefs and actions.

19. 19 Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba found out that there is a Civic Culture in liberal democracies which consists of three sub- cultures: a- Parochial political culture: People know almost nothing about political system b- Subject political culture: People are affected by political system but they can not affect political system.

20. 20 c- Participant political culture -People affect and be affected by the political system. Most survey research on political culture help to improve our understanding of political orientations of citizens in democratic societies.

21. 21 - Ron Inglehart points out that there is a difference in political culture between older adults and younger adults. - He uses two concepts to explain such differences: materialism (interest oriented beliefs) and post-materialism (value oriented beliefs). - Older adults emphasize materialist values for strong defense, order maintenance and economic growth;

22. 22 - many young adults on the other hand stress “postmaterialist” values including - a more satisfying and safe environment, -freedom of expression, and -more personal power in social and political life.

23. 23 Political Ideology refers to a comprehensive set of beliefs about political world. Ideologies can include a description of political reality and an explanation about why something occurs as it does but they are primarily a normative expression of what ought to be. * A normative expression attempts to evaluate a situation. It is an answer to a “what ought to be” question.

24. 24 Each major ideology has its own internal logic. (consistency) Each major ideology is based on assumptions and value judgments about the following issues;  The human nature  The relationship between the individual and society  Equality among individuals.

25. 25 1) Human nature The “nature versus nurture” (natural needs versus experience): There are two different perspectives on human nature: A= Individual action and behavior derives from natural processes. B= Individual behavior is learned.

26. 26 2) Individual and Society What is the proper relationship between society and individual? a) One view emphasizes the importance of individual freedom of action as the highest value. - This approach says that the individual freedom is the most important value.

27. 27 b) But another view stresses that the collective good should be the highest value. - the individual freedom must be restricted to achieve that collective good.

28. 28 3) Equality a) Legal equality = equality before law (equality of opportunity and equal political rights) b) Material equality= equality of conditions (political equality + economic equality) c) Natural inequality = people and situations are naturally unequal. It is neither possible nor desirable to establish any kind of equality.

29. 29 IDEOLOGIES Conservatism Classical Liberalism Socialism Fascism

30. 30 CONSERVATISM - It attempts to protect traditional values and social hierarchy. - The core element of conservatism is to conserve the many valued elements of the system that already exists. - Stability, Tradition, Loyalty to God and Country.

31. 31 * The individual -individuals are naturally unequal in intelligence, in skills and in status. - Some individuals and groups are superior to others. - Superior groups should be in power.

32. 32 * Individual and Society -inequalities are natural. Society is composed of many different groups which are unequal in power, status and material possessions. - Members of a society work cooperatively to maintain the social order. (theory of organic society)

33. 33 - no majority has the right to limit the rights of others. This means that there should be no constraints on the rights of superior groups. - superior groups (or nobility) have obligations and responsibility to protect the weak from ills and troubles.

34. 34 - tradition is more important than reason. - traditions are the most valuable sources for guiding society since they support stability and moderate change. *Equality - it is foolish and even dangerous to seek equality.

35. 35 - This means that forced equality is unwise because it disrupts the natural hierarchy among groups and causes social conflict and unnatural change. - Edmund Burke (1729-1797), was the most effective spokesperson for conservatism.

36. 36 Classical Liberalism - individual freedom is the highest value - the role of government should be quite limited. -classical liberalism emerged as a reaction to European feudal order (which was hierarchical and static).

37. 37 The individual - natural rights (life,liberty,property) are the highest values - each person is a rational and responsible individual who is the best judge to know what is in his/her self interests. (rationality) - individual ought to be allowed to exercise freedom of action.

38. 38 Individual and Society: - social order should not limit the individual. - government should not interfere in the economy. - no principle justifies the limitation of individual freedom. - A Laissez faire economy guided by enlightened self interest is a necessity.

39. 39 - No need to regulation in economy by the state. Because there is an indivisible hand of the market. - government authority should rest on the consent of people. - The power of government should be limited to protect personal liberty.

40. 40 Equality: - equality before law (equality of opportunity) - government should not attempt to create material equality because government action can undermine individual initiative and independence.

41. 41 Socialism It is an ideology that aims to provide equal conditions of life for everyone. The Individual - Individuals are not naturally selfish and aggressive. -Individuals are social and caring (helpful) by nature. - Environment determines individual’s behavior.

42. 42 Individual and Society - the most important value is the common good of society. - The government must have a crucial role in providing good material living conditions and security for people. - The government must take extensive or important roles in such areas as education, health care, employment, and shelter (protection) against economic uncertainty.

43. 43 Equality - Both hierarchical world of conservatism and self-serving (individualistic) world of classical liberalism create huge inequalities in material conditions, status and power. -These inequalities cause unhappiness, deep alienation and deep conflicts in the society.

44. 44 - the power and policies of the state shall be used to increase the material equality as well as the social and political equality of all citizens.

45. 45 Such equality will make people happy citizens who willingly contribute to the common good. Variations of Socialism 1)Marxist-Leninist Socialism: Three assumptions in creating a good society based on equality and social justice.

46. 46 First, the old socio-economic order will resist change by every means available. So change will require violent overthrow of the old order. Second, the socialist government should be powerful in order to perform its functions. The most important task of government includes the restructuring of economic system with public ownership of the major resources.

47. 47 -Third, a small leadership group (the communist party) whose members are loyal to socialist ideals must be in power. -When relative equality is achieved, both the small leadership group and the powerful government can be eliminated. They will be replaced by a decentralized, citizen-run politics and efficient administration. -‘from each according to his/her ability to each according to his/her needs.’

48. 48 2- Democratic Socialism *Egalitarianism is important for this variant of socialism. *A government that comes to power and rules by democratic means, not by violence, can establish socialism. *This government takes its authority from the voluntary consent of people by election.

49. 49 *Gradual change towards socialism with the protection of individual freedoms. *The government might own some of the major economic resources and it strongly regulates much of the economic system. *But the government does not attempt to plan and control all aspects of economic system.

50. 50 Fascism: *Its variant is called Nazism in Germany *This ideology places fundamental importance on the unity and harmony of government and society. Fascism is: * ultra-nationalist *Anti socialist, because it opposes the egalitarian ethic.

51. 51 - Anti-democratic, because it opposes multi-party politics. *Skinheads, Ku Klux Klan (USA), National Front in France, Freedom Party in Austria.