1. Forensic Anthropology
What can it tell us?

2. Vocabulary
Anthropology – the scientific study of the origins and behavior as well as the physical, social, and cultural development of humans
Epiphysis – the presence of a visible line that marks the place where cartilage is being replaced by bone
Forensic anthropology – the study of physical anthropology as it applies to human skeletal remains in a legal setting
Joints – locations where bones meet
Mitochondrial DNA – DNA found in the mitochondria that is inherited only through the mother
Ossification – the process that replaces soft cartilage with hard bone by the deposition of minerals

3. Vocabulary
Osteobiography – the physical record of a person’s life as told by his or her bones
Osteoblast – a type of cell capable of migrating and depositing new bone
Osteoclast – a bone cell involved in the breaking down of bone and removal of wastes
Osteocyte – an osteoblast that becomes trapped in the construction of bone; a living bone cell
Osteoporosis – weakening of bone that may happen due to lack of calcium in the diet
Skeletal trauma analysis – the investigation of bones and the marks on them to uncover a potential cause of death

4. What will we cover? How bone is formed
Distinguish between male and female skeletal remains based on skull, jaw, brow ridge, pelvis, and femur
Describe how bones contain a record of injuries and disease
Describe how a person’s approximate age could be determined by examining his or her bones
Explain the differences in facial structures among different races
Describe the role of mitochondrial DNA in bone identification

5. History
1800s – scientists began using skull measurements to differentiate human bodies
1897 – Luetgert murder case; man killed his wife and boiled down her remains
Fragments of skull, finger and arm found
1932 – FBI opened first crime lab helping identify human remains
1939 – William Krogman published Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material

6. History Cont’d
WWII – remains of soldiers identified using anthropological means
Recently – new mitochondrial DNA techniques have identified Romanov family skeletal remains

7. Development of Bone Bones originate from osteoblasts
Begin in fetus as soft cartilage
Osteoblasts harden (ossificate) during first few weeks of life to become bone

8. Development of Bone
All of our lives – bone is deposited, broken down and replaced
Osteocytes – cells that form basic framework for new bone

9. Development of Bone – Functions of Osteoclasts
Specialized to dissolve and shape bone as you age
Also help maintain homeostasis of calcium
Dissolve bone when calcium is needed and release into blood
Can lead to osteoporosis
When bone is injured – secrete enzymes that dissolve broken bone so new bone can be laid down

10. Number of Bones Children – 450
Children have bones that eventually suture together
Adult – 206 after all bones have fully developed

11. How Bones Connect Joints – locations where bones meet
Three types of connective tissue
Cartilage – wraps ends of bones for protection and to keep from scraping
Ligaments – bands of tissue that connect two or more bones
Tendons – connect muscle to bone

12. Aging of Bone What can bone tell us?
Children build bones faster and bones grow in size
After 30 years – process starts to reverse and bones deteriorate faster than built
Can be slowed by exercise
# of bones and their condition can tell a person’s age, health, and calcium in food

14. Osteobiography The story of a life as told by bones Things we can see:
Loss of bone density, poor teeth, signs of arthritis
Previous fractures, artificial joints, and pins
Right-handed vs. left-handed
Physical labor

15. Surface of Bones Males vs. Females
Males – appearance usually thicker, rougher, bumpy
Due to muscle connections, bigger body size
Females – smoother (gracile) and less knobby (robust)

16. Skulls – Bones to Know Maxilla Mandible Zygomatic bone Vomer bone
Frontal bone
Nasal bone
Orbit (eye socket)
Sphenoid bone
Sutures (between skull bones)

17. Skulls – Male vs. Female Frontal View
Trait
Female
Low and sloping
Frontal Bone
Higher and more rounded
More Square
Shape of Eye (orbits)
More Rounded
Mandible (Lower Jaw)
More V-shaped
Thicker and larger
Upper Brow Ridge (Zygomatic)
Thinner and smaller

18. Skulls – Male vs. Female Side View
Trait
Female
Present
Occipital protuberance
Absent
Lower and more sloping
Frontal bone
Higher and more rounded
Bumpy and rough
Surface of skull
smooth
Angled at 90° (straight)
Mandible (Jaw bone)
Greater than 90° (sloping)

19. Male Vs. Female Skull

20. Pelvis – Anatomy Ilium Ischium Pubis Sacrum Coccyx Pubic symphysis
Bones to Know
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
Sacrum
Coccyx
Pubic symphysis
Obturator Foramen

21. Pelvis – Male vs. Female Things to consider: Sub-pubic angle
Length, width, shape, angle of sacrum
Width of ileum
Angle of sciatic notch

22. Pelvis – Male vs. Female Male Trait Female 50-82 degrees
Subpubic angle
> 90 degrees
Triangular pubis
Shape of pubis
Rectangular pubis
Heart shaped
Shape of pelvic cavity
Oval shaped
Longer, narrower, curved inward
sacrum
Shorter, broader, curved outward

24. Pelvis – Male vs. Female Other differences in female pelvis:
Often weighs less
Surface engraved with scars after female has given birth
Can be detected most at pubic symphysis
Thigh Bone: Femur
Angle of femur to pelvis is greater in females and straighter in males
Male femur is thicker than female femur

25. Distinguishing Age
Bones don’t reach maturity at the same time – To help tell their age:
suture marks
presence or absence of cartilage

26. Suture Marks Zigzag areas where bones of the skull meet
In babies, some is soft tissue that is gradually ossified
Suture marks slowly fade to give smoother appearance as bones age

27. Suture Marks Cont’d Coronal Suture: Lamboidal Suture: closed by age 50
begins closing at 21
accelerates at 26
closed by 30

28. Cartilaginous Lines
Epiphysis – line that forms as cartilage is replaced by bone
Also called Epiphyseal plate
Line disappears as bone completes growth
Presence or absence of this can approximate age

29. Long Bones
When head of a long bone has fused with shaft completely – indication of age
Each bone takes different amount of time

30. Long Bones Chart Region of Body Bone Age Arm
Humerus bones in head fused
4-6
Humerus bones in head fused to shaft
18-20
Leg
Femur: greater trochanter appears 4
Lesser trochanter appears
13-14
Femur: head fused to shaft
16-18
Femur: condoyles join shaft 20

31. Long Bones Chart 2 Region of Body Bone Age Shoulder
Sternum and clavicle close
18-24
Pelvis
Pubis, ischium completely united
7-8
Ilium, ischium, pubis fully ossified
20-25
All segments of sacrum united
25-30
Skull
Lamboidal suture closed
21-30
Sagittal suture closed 32
Coronal suture closed 50

32. Estimating Height
Measuring long bones like femur or humerus can help estimate height
Databases established that use mathematical relationships
Different tables for males, females, and races
Example
A femur measuring 49 cm belonging to an African American male is found.
Calculation: 2.10(length of femur) cm
2.10(49) = cm or
69 inches (5’9”)

33. Distinguishing Race This is losing its significance in differences
Two biggest differences are in skull and femur:
Shape of eye sockets
Absence or presence of nasal spine
Nasal index – width of nasal opening X 100
height of nasal opening
Prognathism – projection of upper jaw (maxilla) beyond the lower jaw (mandible)
Width of face
Angulation of jaw and face

35. Distinguishing Race Caucasoid Negroid Mongoloid Shape of Eye Orbits
Rounded, somewhat square
Rectangular
Rounded, somewhat circular
Nasal Spine
Prominent spine
Very small spine
Somewhat prominent spine
Nasal Index
<.48
>.53
Prognathism
Straight
Prognathic
Variable
Femur
Fingers fit under curvature of femur
Fingers don’t fit under curvature of femur

36. Other things bones can tell
Left or right-handed
Diet and nutritional dairy, esp. vit D and calcium
Diseases or genetic disorders:
Osteoporosis, arthritis, scoliosis, osteogenesis imperfecta
Type of work or sports based on bone structure
Previous injuries such as fractures
Surgical implants: artificial joints, pins
Childbirth

37. Facial Reconstruction
Theoretically possible to build a face from skeleton up using clay
Related to size and shape of muscles and tissues that overlay bones
Specific markers on face are used
Reconstruction attempted on
Johann Sebastian Bach
King Tut
Same techniques used to age missing persons

38. Reconstruction of Bach

39. DNA Evidence Mitochondrial DNA degrades much, much, much slower
Can be extracted from bones and compared to living relatives on mother’s side of family

40. Skeletal Trauma Analysis
Forensic scientists trained to recognize marks made by weathering and animals
A knife wound on rib leaves a mark that might look similar to rodent chew marks
Goal is to tell the difference in marks made by patterns in weapons, and marks made by weathering
Forensic anthropologists try to determine cause of death and weapon

41. Skeletal Trauma Analysis
Sharp-force and blunt-force trauma, gunshot, and knife wounds all have distinctive patterns
Living bone flexible compared to old and brittle bone
Bones break differently when living versus when old