1. Creating and Pricing Products that Satisfy Customers
Chapter Fourteen
Creating and Pricing Products that Satisfy Customers

2. Classification of Products
Everything one receives in an exchange, including all tangible and intangible attributes and expected benefits
A good, service, or idea
Consumer product
A product purchased to satisfy personal and family needs
Business (industrial) product
A product bought for resale, for making other products, or for use in a firm’s operations

3. Consumer Product Classifications
Convenience product
A relatively inexpensive, frequently purchased item for which buyers want to exert only minimum effort
Shopping product
An item for which buyers are willing to expend considerable effort on planning and making the purchase
Specialty product
An items that possesses one or more unique characteristics for which a significant group of buyers is willing to expend considerable purchasing effort

4. Business Product Classifications
Raw material
A basic material that becomes part of a physical product; usually comes from mines, forests, oceans, or recycled solid wastes
Major equipment
Large tools and machines used for production purposes
Accessory equipment
Standardized equipment used in a firm’s production or office activities
Component part
An items that becomes a part of a physical product and is either a finished item ready for assembly or a product that needs little processing before assembly

5. Business Product Classifications (cont’d)
Process material
A material that is used directly in the production of another product but is not readily identifiable in the finished product
Supply
An items that facilitates production and operations but does not become part of the finished product
Business service
An intangible products that an organization uses in its operations

6. The Product Life Cycle
A series of stages in which a product’s sales revenue and profit increase, reach a peak, then decline
Introduction
Customer awareness and acceptance are low
Growth
Sales increase rapidly as the product becomes well known
Maturity
Sales are still increasing but at a slower rate; later in this stage, sales and profits begin to slowly decline
Decline stage
Sales volume decreases sharply and profits continue to fall

7. Product Life Cycle
Source: William M. Pride and O. C. Ferrell, Marketing: Concepts and Strategies, 12th ed. Copyright © 2003 by Houghton Mifflin Company, Adapted with permission.

8. Using the Product Life Cycle
The stage of the product life cycle affects the marketing strategy for a product
Introduction
Make potential customers aware of product
Adjust price, distribution, and promotion quickly to maintain sales
Growth
Stabilize and strengthen product position by encouraging brand loyalty
Improve product or expand product line; reduce price; broaden distribution
Maturity
Redesign packaging; encourage new product uses; reconsider pricing strategy; increase promotional efforts and personal selling
Decline
Retain or eliminate product

9. Class Exercise
For the products below, determine what stage of product life cycle the product is currently in and the marketing implications involved.
Compact disc players
Online computer services
Aspirin
Cigarettes
Laptop computers

10. Product Line and Product Mix
A group of similar products that differ only in relatively minor characteristics
Product mix
All of the products that a firm offers for sale
Width of the mix
The number of product lines the mix contains
Depth of the mix
The average number of individual products within each line

11. Managing the Product Mix
Changing Existing Product
Product modification: quality, functionality, or aesthetic characteristics
Deleting Products
Developing New Products
Imitations, adaptations, or innovations

12. Phases of New Product Development
Source: William M. Pride and O. C. Ferrell, Marketing: Concepts and Strategies, 12th ed. Copyright © 2003 by Houghton Mifflin Company, Adapted by permission.

13. Why Do Products Fail?
The product and its marketing program are not planned and tested as completely as they should be
For example, a firm tries to save product development costs and only market-tests a product and not its entire marketing mix
The firm markets a new product before all the “bugs” are worked out
When problems show up in testing, a firm tries to recover its costs by pushing ahead anyway
A firm tries to market a product with inadequate financing

14. Branding What Is a Brand?
A name, term, symbol, design, or any combination of these that identifies a seller’s products as distinct from those of other sellers
Brand name
The part of a brand that can be spoken
Brand mark
The part of a brand that is a symbol or distinctive design
Trademark
A name or brand mark that is registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and is legally protected from use by anyone else
Trade name
The complete and legal name of an organization

15. Branding (cont’d) Types of Brands Manufacturer (producer) brand
A brand that is owned by a manufacturer
Store (private) brand
A brand that is owned by an individual wholesaler or retailer
Generic brand
A product with no brand at all

16. Consumers’ Perceptions of Store and Manufacturers’ Brands
Source: William M. Pride and O. C. Ferrell, Marketing: Concepts and Strategies, 12th ed. Copyright © 2003 by Houghton Mifflin Company, Adapted by permission. Data from “Store Brands at the Turning Point,” Consumer Research Network.

17. Branding (cont’d) Benefits of Branding
Because brands are easily recognizable, they reduce the amount of time buyers must spend shopping
Brands help consumers judge quality
Branding helps a firm introduce a new product with the same brand name
Branding aids in promotional efforts because promotion of each branded product indirectly promotes others with the same brand

18. Benefits of Branding (cont’d)
Brand loyalty
The extent to which a customer is favorable toward buying a specific brand
Recognition, preference, and insistence
Brand equity
The marketing and financial value associated with a brand’s strength in a market
Brand-name awareness, brand association, perceived quality, and brand loyalty

19. Branding (cont’d) Choosing a Brand Protecting a Brand
Kleenex® or tissue?
Choosing a Brand
It should be easy to say, spell, and recall
It should suggest, in a positive way, the product’s uses, special characteristics, and major benefits
It should be distinctive enough to set it apart from competing brands
Protecting a Brand
Should be protected through registration
Guard against a brand name’s becoming a generic term

20. Branding (cont’d) Branding Strategies Individual branding
A firm uses a different brand for each of its products
For example, Procter & Gamble uses Ivory, Camay, Zest, Safeguard, etc., for its line of bar soaps
A problem with one product will not affect another product
Different brands can be directed at different market segments
Family branding
A firm uses the same brand for all or most of its products
For example, Xerox uses family branding for all its product mixes
The promotion of any one item helps all other products
A new product has a head start when its brand name is already known and accepted by customers

21. Packaging
All of the activities involved in developing and providing a container with graphics for a product
Functions of Packaging
Protect the product and maintain its functional form
Offer consumer convenience
Promote the product by communicating its features, uses, benefits, and image
Design Considerations
Cost
Single or multiple units
Consistency among package designs (family packaging)
Promotional role
Needs of intermediaries
Environmental responsibility

22. Criticisms of Packaging
Functional problems
Difficult to open, breakage, inconvenience
Safety
Tampering, sharp edges, breakable glass, health hazards of plastic and aerosol containers
Deception
Shape, design, colors may alter appearance of size; confusing size designations
Cost
Packaging costs passed on to consumers

23. Labeling The presentation of information on a product or its package
May include
Brand name and mark
Trademark symbol
Package size and contents
Product claims
Directions
Safety precautions
Ingredients
Name and address of manufacturer
Universal Product Code (UPC) symbol for automated checkout and inventory control

24. Labeling (cont’d) Must include Express warranty
For garments, name of manufacturer, country of manufacture, fabric content, cleaning instructions
Nutrition labeling in standard format for any food product for which a nutritional claim is made
For food, number of servings, serving size, calories per serving, calories derived from fat, and amounts of specific nutrients
For non-edible items such as shampoo and detergent, safety precautions and instructions
Express warranty
A written explanation of the responsibilities of the producer in the event that the product is found to be defective or otherwise unsatisfactory

25. Using the Internet
The U.S. government gateways to consumer information about products, safety, pricing, fraud, and many other issues of interest are available through a variety of online publications and links.

26. Pricing Products The Meaning and Use of Price
The amount of money a seller is willing to accept in exchange for a product at a given time and under given circumstances
Price allocates goods and services among those who are willing and able to buy them
Price allocates financial resources (sales revenue) among producers according to how well they satisfy customers’ needs
Price helps customers allocate their own financial resources among various want-satisfying products

27. Pricing Products (cont’d)
Can Firms Control Their Prices?
Supply
The quantity of a product that producers are willing to sell at each of various prices
Quantity supplied by producers increases as the price increases
Demand
The quantity of a product that buyers are willing to purchase at each of various prices
Quantity demanded increases as the price decreases
Equilibrium
Where the supply and demand curves intersect and quantity and price for buyers and sellers are equal

28. Supply and Demand Curves

29. Pricing Products (cont’d)
Prices in the Real Economy
Producers try to gain control over price by differentiating their products
Differentiation
The process of developing and promoting differences between one’s product and all similar products
Producers also try to gain control over price through advertising
Firms may reduce prices to obtain a competitive edge

30. Pricing Products (cont’d)
Price and Nonprice Competition
Price competition
An emphasis on setting a price equal to or lower than competitors’ prices to gain sales or market share
Nonprice competition
Competition based on factors other than price
Buyers’ Perceptions of Price
Buyers will accept different ranges of prices for different products
A premium price may be appropriate if a product is considered superior or has inspired strong brand loyalty

31. Debate Issue: Is price competition more effective than nonprice competition?
YES
Many customers today are very price conscious.
With so many homogeneous products on the market, price is a major means of distinguishing a product from competitive brands.
When price competition is used, firms attempt to keep their costs low. NO
Price competition breeds price-sensitive customers with little brand loyalty.
Product features and quality are more distinguishing in setting a product apart from its competitors.
Nonprice variables should be desirable to buyers as well as difficult to imitate.

32. Pricing Objectives Survival Profit Maximization
Pricing the firm’s products (perhaps at a loss) in order to attract customers to establish the firm in a market
Profit Maximization
Pricing with the intent to reap profits as large as possible from a market—usually an unattainable goal
Target Return on Investment (ROI)
Pricing that allows the firm to attain its profit goal, which is a percentage of the investment the firm has made

33. Pricing Objectives (cont’d)
Market Share Goals
Pricing that will increase a firm’s proportion of total industry sales
Status Quo Pricing
Pricing the firm’s products so as to not disturb the stability of prices in the industry

34. Factors That Affect Pricing Decisions
Source: William M. Pride and O. C. Ferrell, Marketing: Concepts and Strategies, 12th ed. Copyright © 2003 by Houghton Mifflin Company, Adapted by permission.

35. Pricing Methods Cost-Based Pricing
The seller determines the total cost of producing one unit of the product then adds an amount to cover additional costs and profit (markup)
Markup may be calculated as a percentage of total costs
Flaws
Difficulty of determining an effective markup percentage; price may be too high resulting in lost sales or price may be too low resulting in lost profit
Separates pricing from other business functions that impact on marketing decisions

36. Pricing Methods Breakeven analysis Breakeven quantity Total revenue
The number of units that must be sold for total revenue (from all units sold) to equal the total cost (of all units sold)
Total revenue
The total amount received from sales of a product
Fixed cost
A cost incurred no matter how many units are produced or sold
Variable cost
A cost that depends on the number of units produced
Total cost
The sum of the fixed costs and the variable costs attributed to a product

37. Breakeven Analysis
What is the lowest level of production and sales at which a company can break even on a particular product?

38. Pricing Methods (cont’d)
Demand-Based Pricing
Based on the level of customer demand for the product
Product prices are high when demand is high and low when demand is weak
Price differentiation
Setting different prices in segmented markets based on segment characteristics (e.g., time of purchase, type of customer, or distribution channel)
Competition-Based Pricing
Based on meeting the challenge of competitors’ prices in markets where products are quite similar or price is an important customer consideration

39. Types of Pricing Strategies

40. Pricing Strategies New-Product Strategies Price Skimming
Charging the highest possible price for a product during the introduction stage of its life cycle
Penetration Pricing
Setting a low price for a new product to quickly build market share and discourage competitors

41. Pricing Strategies (cont’d)
Differential Pricing
Charging different prices to different buyers for the same quality and quantity of product
The market must consist of multiple segments with different price sensitivities
Negotiated pricing
Establishing a final price through bargaining
Secondary-market pricing
Setting one price for the primary target market and a different price for another market
Periodic discounting
Temporary reduction of prices on a patterned or systematic basis
Random discounting
Temporary reduction of prices on an unsystematic basis

42. Pricing Strategies (cont’d)
Psychological Pricing
Odd-number pricing
Setting prices using odd numbers that are slightly below whole-dollar amounts
Multiple-unit pricing
Setting a single price for two or more units
Reference pricing
Pricing a product at a moderate level and positioning it next to a more expensive model or brand
Bundle pricing
Packaging two or more complementary products and selling them for a single price
Everyday low prices (EDLPs)
Setting a low price for products on a consistent basis
Customary pricing
Pricing on the basis of tradition

43. Pricing Strategies (cont’d)
Product-Line Pricing
Establishing and adjusting the prices of multiple products within a product line
Captive pricing
Pricing the basic product in a product line low, but pricing related items at a higher level
Premium pricing
Pricing the highest quality or most versatile products higher than other models in the product line
Price lining
Setting a limited number of prices for selected groups or lines of merchandise

44. Pricing Strategies (cont’d)
Promotional Pricing
Price leaders
Products priced below the usual markup, near cost, or below cost
Special-event pricing
Advertised sales or price cutting linked to a holiday, season, or event
Comparison discounting
Setting a price at a specific level and comparing it with a higher price