1. The Genetic Material-DNA - and it’s Role
Where is the genetic material stored?
Before 1930, this was not clear…
Hammerling in Germany studied the small green algae, Acetabularia to find out

2. Acetabularia
Cap
Stalk
Foot

3. Acetabularia Cut off cap….new one grows Cut off foot…no new growth
Hammerling hypothesized the information for growth & development resides in the foot.
AND… the nucleus resides in the foot

4. Acetabularia… Transplantation Experiments
In replacing caps and feet between species, Hammerling found that the nucleus-containing foot was the determining factor.

5. But there were problems with believing that the nucleus is the site for genetic material
It contains primarily DNA and there’s just not enough variability in DNA to explain all of life!!!
So many still believed proteins must contain the genetic code…

6. Hershey-Chase Experiment 1952
Worked with viruses that attacked bacteria…called Bacteriophage
Composed of only protein coat & DNA
Look like bizarre spacecraft...
DNA
Protein
Coat

7. Bacteriophage DNA Protein Coat
Life cycle includes attacking bacteria cell and injecting its genetic material inside…producing thousands of new viruses
Text pg. 201
If virus has only protein and DNA, one is the candidate genetic material
How to determine which?
Bacteria cell
DNA
Protein
Coat

8. Hershey-Chase Experiment 1952
In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase conducted a series of experiments to determine whether protein or DNA was the hereditary material.
By labeling DNA and protein with different radioisotopes, they would be able to determine which chemical (DNA or protein) was getting into the bacteria. And such material must be the hereditary material.
Since DNA contains Phosphorous (P) but no Sulfur (S), they tagged the DNA with radioactive Phosphorous-32. Conversely, protein lacks P but does have S, thus it could be tagged with radioactive Sulfur-35.

9. Hershey-Chase Experiment
Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase labeled the Bacteriophage protein with radioactive Sulphur (35S) and the DNA with radioactive Phosphorous (32P)
Later…The newly formed viruses inside the cell had only 32P label.

11. Therefore: DNA is the Genetic Material
Structure of DNA: A Review…
Made of Nucleotide units:
Ribose sugar (5C sugar)
Phosphorous group (-PO4)
Nitrogen-containing base (A,G,C,T)
Nucleotides are linked together by covalent (phosphodiester) bonds
Text pg. 205

12. DNA Structure
Two anti-parallel nucleotide strands held together by H-bonds
And twisted together to form a helical structure
Text pg. 204

13. How DNA Replicates A .. T G
... C 5’ 3’

14. DNA Replication 5’
An enzyme termed DNA Polymerase synthesizes new DNA from original in a 5’ to 3’ direction (the end with a free –OH group)
DNA replication results in two new complementary strands of DNA….
One of each is from original and one new…..semi-conservative replication 3’
New nucleotides can
Only add to this end

15. 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ DNA Polymerase 5’ 3’ A A T T G G C C A A T T T T A A C C G

16. DNA replication involves a great many building blocks, enzymes and a great deal of ATP energy. DNA replication in humans occurs at a rate of 50 nucleotides per second and ~500/second in prokaryotes.
Nucleotides have to be assembled and available in the nucleus, along with energy to make bonds between nucleotides. DNA helicase enzymes unzip the DNA helix by breaking the H-bonds between bases. Once the polymerases have opened the DNA, an area known as the replication bubble forks (always initiated at a certain set of nucleotides, the origin of replication).
New nucleotides are placed in the fork and link to the corresponding parental nucleotide already there (A with T, C with G). Prokaryotes open a single replication fork, while eukaryotes have multiple forks.

17. Since the DNA strands are antiparallel, and replication proceeds in the 5' to 3'
direction on EACH strand, one strand will form a continuous copy. The top strand
here….
Text pg. 212

18. The Lagging Strand
…while the other, lagging strand will form a series of short pieces with gaps. These are called “Okazaki fragments” and require the use of other enzymes to complete the process.
Text pg. 212

19. Semi-conservative replication
Original DNA Strand
Original DNA Strand
New DNA Strands

20. Proofreading DNA must be faithfully replicated…but mistakes occur:
DNA polymerase (DNA pol) inserts the wrong nucleotide base in 1/10,000 bases
DNA pol has a proofreading capability and can correct errors
Mismatch repair: ‘wrong’ inserted base can be removed
Excision repair: DNA may be damaged by chemicals, radiation, etc. Mechanism to cut out and replace with correct bases
Text pg 213

21. How does DNA carry the information for life?
Small segments of DNA (sequences of nucleotides) code for specific proteins
These segments of DNA are called genes
One gene codes for one protein…(mostly!)
Hundreds-Thousands of genes per chromosome