1. Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D., NCSP Schoolhouse Educational Services May, 2013
Identifying a Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses when Assessing Cognitive Processes
Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D., NCSP
Schoolhouse Educational Services
May, 2013

2. Notice of Copyright 2013
This PowerPoint presentation and accompanying materials are copyrighted by Schoolhouse Educational Services, LLC and Milton J. Dehn. They are not to be reprinted, copied, or electronically disseminated without written permission. To obtain permission,

3. Workshop Information Sources
Essentials of Processing Assessment, 2nd Ed.
Children’s Psychological Processes Scale
Bibliography in handout
Other cited references

4. Workshop Topics Processes to assess Processes and academic skills
Neuroanatomy of processes
Selective, cross-battery testing
Identifying strengths and weaknesses
SLD identification using a pattern of strengths and weaknesses
Overview of processing interventions

5. What are Psychological Processes?
Includes “cognitive” processes
Brain processes, operations, functions
Any time mental contents are operated on
When information is perceived, transformed, manipulated, stored, retrieved, expressed
Whenever we think, reason, problem-solve
Basic and higher level processes
Doesn’t include knowledge or academic skills
Learning depends on these processes; they underlie academic skills

6. The Need for Processing Assessment
Part of a neuropsychological approach
Not just for SLD but Autism, ADHD, TBI, etc.
Neuroscience has increased understanding of brain-learning relationships
A deficit in a “psychological process” is part of federal and states’ SLD definitions
Identification leads to more appropriate interventions

7. Federal & State SLD Criteria
SLD is…… “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes”
IDEIA 2004 allows alternative research-based procedures (the third method)
Been interpreted as allowing use of a pattern of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) in SLD diagnosis
In achievement, cognitive abilities, or psychological processes

8. Processing Assessment Advantages
Benefits the learner: better understanding
Identifying a processing deficit differentiates SLD & slow learning
Identifying processing deficits provides direction for academic interventions

9. Processing and RTI
Processing model consistent with problem-solving and early intervention
There are evidence-based processing interventions
Different processing “causes” of SLD
Why do “blind” academic interventions
Processing & academic interventions compatible---why they work

10. Characteristics of Psychological Processes to Assess
Brain-based
Interrelated
Necessary for academic learning
Both broad and narrow processes
Manifestations of processing problems are observable in classroom

11. Processes for SLD Assessment
Attention
Auditory Processing
Executive Functions
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall
Oral Language
Phonological Processing
Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Working Memory (WM)

12. Human Processing Limitations
Human limitations
Which processes does the chimp excel at?

13. Attention Necessary for learning and memory
Attention deficits part of LD
Not necessarily ADHD
ADHD is more hyperactive/impulsive
Inattentive type is more cognitive/learning problems
Types: Selective, focused, divided, sustained
Problem: attentional control & inhibition
Related to Executive Functions and Working Memory

14. Auditory Processing
Ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, mainly speech
Perceiving and comprehending instruction; being able to understand words with background noise

15. Executive Functions
Management of cognitive functions and psychological processes
Effectiveness depends on self-monitoring, self-regulation, and metacognition
Has a longer course of development
More to do with classroom performance than learning of academic skills

16. Fluid Reasoning
Deductive, inductive reasoning, especially with novel materials
Has a longer course of development
More important for applied academics

17. Long-Term Recall
Close connection with other processes and with academic learning in general
Includes encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval
Rapid automatic naming is part of

18. Oral Language
Not the content (vocabulary) or receptive language but the oral expression processes

19. Phonological Processing
Processing of phonemes, e.g. blending
Phonemic awareness is part of

20. Processing Speed
How quickly information flows through the processing system; a matter of efficiency
Too slow: info. lost, process not completed

21. Visual-Spatial Processing
The ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, manipulate and think with visual patterns
A strength in most LD cases
Weak relations with all academics; more of a “threshold” process

22. Working Memory Processing while retaining information
Includes short-term memory
Both verbal and visual
An executive component

23. Processes and Academic Learning
Psychological processes are like “aptitudes”
Relations established through research
Flanagan et al., & McGrew
Swanson, Geary, and others
The influence of processes varies by age
For SLD look for academic area and related psychological processes to both be low
See Table

24. Research: SLD by Processing Subtypes
Visual-Spatial Deficits: Math calculation and math problem solving
Processing Speed Deficits: Reading comprehension, written expression
Working Memory Deficit: Math calculation, Written expression
Attention: Written expression
Source: Hain, Hale, Kendorski

25. Dehn’s Processing Theory
“For each academic skill there is an optimal set of psychological processes that function as aptitudes. For successful learning of a specific academic skill, the combined set of specific aptitudes must attain a sufficient threshold of development.” Link

26. Processing Clusters: Memory Example
Attention
Executive Functions
Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall
Processing Speed
Working Memory
See Link for other clusters

27. Developmental Groupings
Mature early after gradual development:
Auditory Processing
Fine Motor Processing
Long-Term Recall
Phonological Processing
Visual-Spatial Processing
See link for other groupings

28. Neuroanatomy of Processes

29. Neuroanatomy of Processes
Most in more than one brain lobe
Illustrates the interconnectivity of processes
Most have specific structures within a lobe
Processing speed is a function of interconnectivity; does not have a specific structure

30. Occipital Lobe Dedicated to vision and visual-spatial processing
Receives sensory data from the thalamus
Visual and spatial processing are separate
Dorsal stream (upper) sends spatial information to parietal lobe
Ventral stream (lower) sends visual information to temporal lobe

31. Temporal Lobe Auditory processing
Long-term memory processing in the hippocampus
Some visual processing
Semantic memory storage

32. Parietal Lobe Integrates sensory information Language processing
Phonological processing

33. Frontal Lobe The “output” lobe; others are input
Executive functions---prefrontal cortex
Working memory---prefrontal cortex
Attentional control---prefrontal cortex
Fluid reasoning
Fine motor
Oral expression
No storage of long-term memories

34. Processing Assessment Challenges
Connecting to academic concerns
Interrelated processes
Not all are found in one convenient battery
Doing it efficiently
Linking with interventions

35. Processing Assessment Principles
Should be multimethod, multisource, and multisetting
Informal, qualitative not enough
Should include standardized testing
Should be hypothesis driven
Selective, cross-battery testing
Integrate data during interpretation

36. Records Review Any medical or health conditions Age of onset
Developmental delays
Look for reported behaviors that indicate processing problems
Difficulty memorizing arithmetic facts: WM
Difficulty blending: Phonological processing
Low fluency: Processing speed

37. Interviews
Ask directly about processes but also ask about behaviors that are manifestations of processing weaknesses
Teachers: Ask about their hypotheses
Parents: Home environment examples
Students: Middle school and older
Suggested teacher and parent interview items will be in revised book

38. Observations An observed behavior is due to more than one process
Look for several problematic behaviors that go with a specific process
See link

39. Dehn’s Approach to Cross Battery
Not limited to CHC factors
“Narrow” abilities/processes included
Includes processing factors that are important for learning of academic skills
Includes rating scales
Subtests classified through task analysis
Analyze scores at the composite (two-subtest) level whenever possible

40. Cross-Battery Testing
Assessment driven by hypotheses
Mix scales/batteries to cover all the areas
Try to limit the number of scales
Should be normed about the same time
Avoid redundancies when testing
Ideally, 2 subtests per process
Analyze results together and use a cross-battery mean to determine discrepancies

41. Selective Testing
Test all processes important for academics With most attention to an in-depth assessment of hypothesized weaknesses
Apply a cross-battery approach
Pick composites first
Categorized by factor and task analysis
See selective testing tables Link
See comprehensive list link from book

42. Hypothesis Testing Approach
Given academic deficiency, what are the most likely process deficits
It’s “why” the child has a learning problem
Include non-processes
Must collect assessment data to “test” hypotheses
Try to avoid “confirmatory bias”
We all have weaknesses

43. Planning a Processing Assessment
Complete the processing assessment planner
Template
Completed example
See case study

44. Six-Year Old Case Study Concerns
Learning colors, letters, and numbers
Inconsistent performance
Recognizing and generating rhyming words
Reading learning difficulties
Doesn’t remember directions
Difficulty getting started on a task
Word retrieval problems
Math learning difficulties

45. Processing Analysis Worksheet
Composite scores from test manual when possible
Convert all scores to standard scores
Exclude non-processing factors and subtests
Compute clinical process scores by averaging
Compute processing mean
Calculate discrepancies
Determine weaknesses and deficits
Do pairwise comparisons Completed Example
Opposites and those closely related
Complete worksheet and interpret

46. Using Dehn’s Processing Analysis Worksheet to Determine PSW
Deficit = both normative and intra-individual weakness (deficit is a “strong” weakness)
Scores below 90 are normative weaknesses
Below 85 if not using deficit approach
Intra-individual strengths and weaknesses use 12 point discrepancy
Assumes composites/subtests have hi reliability
Use 15 points if not using deficit approach
Automated worksheet

47. PSW Principles Regarding SLD
Neurologically-based deficits underlie SLD
There’s no SLD if there’s no processing deficit
Some processes highly related with academic skills
Processing deficits related to academic deficits
SLD have average or near average cognitive ability
Weakness should be normative &intra-individual
Weakness: statistically significant and unusual
PSW doesn’t mean there is a learning disability.

49. Concordance-Discordance Model
From James Brad Hale Link
Similar to Naglieri’s model
Processing areas not significantly related to the academic area should be discordant: Processing strengths should be significantly higher than the academic weakness

50. CHC Model
A process related to the academic deficiency is weak or deficient
Unexpected underachievement: Process and academic deficit exist with otherwise normal ability
Regarding strengths, at least some processes should be in the average range

51. Dehn’s PSW Model
Normative weakness + intra-individual weakness = deficit
At least one process is a deficit
Intra-individual weakness is statistically significant
Subtest scores must be unitary for a deficit
At least one processes is in average range (strength)
The deficit is related to deficient academic skill
Consistency between process score(s) and the related academic skill score Link

52. Determining Weaknesses & Deficits
Intra-individual strengths and weaknesses
Should be at least a 12-point discrepancy
15 points if not using deficit rule
Normative weakness when score below 90
Deficits are rare statistically, have a neurological basis, and impair learning
Most states require only a weakness (typically an intra-individual weakness) but not a deficit, and also require strengths

53. Support for Strengths and Weaknesses
Informal data supports test scores and results of score analysis
Corroboration especially needed when scores differences are less than one standard deviation (12-14 points)
Integrate and label data when writing report
Weaknesses match with specific academic areas they are highly related with

54. Psychological Processing Analyzer
Available at
Identifies strengths, weaknesses, deficits
Conducts cross-battery analysis using composites and/or subtest standard scores
11 psychological processes
From 22+ different scales: cognitive, achieve., rating, and processing link

55. Psychological Processing Analyzer
Composite and subtests are limited to those that are fairly direct measures
Some are re-classified based on the primary demands of the task
Difference formulas based on reliability coefficients of composites/subtests
Regression toward the mean
.01 or .05 level of significance

56. Psychological Processing Analyzer
All scores converted to standard scores
Non-unitary process scores are flagged
Predicted score for each process based on mean of other 10
Differences greater than critical values are intra-individual weaknesses
Deficits are both types of weaknesses
Pairwise comparisons are optional Link

57. Other Options for Determining PSW
Cross-battery software based on CHC taxonomy
Only shows one process weakness at a time
Use simple difference (SED) formula
Uses reliability coefficients
Advanced formula can be used when correlation between measures is known
Checking for confidence interval overlap

58. Rating Scales Processing deficits are manifested through behaviors
Behavior ratings can be used to measure processing abilities
Examples: BRIEF and other Executive Function Scales
Also, the new CPPS

59. Children’s Psychological Processes Scale (CPPS) Overview
Standardized teacher rating scale
Ages to
121 items across 11 subscales
Entirely online, internet-web based
Online administration time of 15 minutes
Online scoring and report
Author: Milton Dehn; published by Schoolhouse Educational Services, 2012
Measurement Consultant: Kevin McGrew

60. The Purposes of the CPPS
SLD Evaluations
Identify psych processing deficits
Pattern of strengths and weaknesses
Data for SLD diagnosis
Screening
Identifies need for intervention
Predicts academic skills development
Useful in planning comprehensive assessment
Planning interventions
Measure progress during interventions
Through the use of change-sensitive W-scores

61. CPPS Standardization 1,121 students rated by 278 teachers
128 communities in 30 states
All data collected online
Demographics match U.S. Census well
Norms: 4 age groups (5-6; 7-8; 9-10; 11-12)
Included children with disabilities
Demographics details Link

62. How The Online CPPS Works
A psychologist’s side and a teacher’s side
Psychologist fills in teacher information and sent
Teacher: student info and completes ratings
Psych receives stating ratings complete
Psych generates report
See screen shots

63. CPPS Administration
Online rating scale minutes for teachers to complete
Can print free paper copy and enter later
Must answer all items (but can save incomplete)
Never, Sometimes, Often, Almost Always
Rating scale saved until report generated

64. CPPS Items Grouped by subscale
In developmental (ability) order from lowest item to highest item
Link
Example of scoring in developmental sequence Link

65. CPPS Report Brief narrative, graph, and a table of scores
Change-sensitive W-scores
T-scores; percentiles; confidence intervals
Intra-individual strengths and weakness discrepancy table
T-score to standard score converter
Can be re-run with different options (without extra charge) Example

66. Discrepancy Analysis
Use discrepancy table to determine pattern of strengths and weaknesses (reversed)
Predicted score based on mean of other 10
Regression toward the mean included
+/ to 2.00 SD of SEE discrepancy options
Strengths and Weakness labeling is opposite of discrepancy, e.g. “-” value = a strength
Non LD also have a pattern Link

67. T-Score Conversion Table
Optional
Purpose: To see how consistent CPPS scores are with achievement and cognitive scores
T-score x and then reverse distance from mean
Example: T-score of 60 x 1.5 = = 115
Then subtract 15 from 100 = 85 Example

68. CPPS General Processing Ability (GPA)
Based on average of all process scores
Emerges from factor analysis; similar to concept of general intelligence
Processes function in an inter-related fashion
Most processes contribute to any given behavior, task
On CPPS defined as “the underlying efficiency of processing”

69. Diagnostic Accuracy for LD
37 LD subjects with broad demographics
Compared to matched controls, LD subjects had significantly higher means on all subscales Link
The CPPS had high classification accuracy in regards to LD
Using CPPS GPA cutoff of 60 had a 92% classification accuracy across 74 subjects

70. Diagnosing LD with the CPPS
Look for pattern of strengths and weaknesses (discrepancy table)
Weaknesses should also be normative weaknesses (T-scores above 60)
Weaknesses should link to evidence-based achievement relations
Same criteria as PSW model

71. Discussion How will you do processing assessment differently?
How will you determine weaknesses, strengths, deficits?

72. Using Assessment Results to Plan an Intervention
Select deficits and intra-individual weaknesses for intervention
Consider related processing weaknesses
Consider executive and WM limitations
Individualize

73. Interventions for Processing Weaknesses & Deficits
Strengthen weakness if possible
And utilize the strong areas more
Modifications that reduce the need to use the weak processes
Use methods that involve other processes, more of the brain

74. Attention: Self-Monitoring
Teacher, or device carried by student, cues student at variable intervals, such as 5 minutes
When cued, student marks monitoring sheet regarding behavior when cue occurred: 2-Completely on task; 1-Partially on task; 0-Completely off task
When teacher is cueing, she also provides her rating alongside student’s; student receives bonus point when ratings match
Set a points goal that student is working for, easy at first, then keep adjusting upward Link

75. Auditory Processing Same as interventions for CAPD
Recoding auditory into visual information
Visual representations should accompany verbal presentations
Quiet environment
Improve acoustics
Fast ForWord
Auditory trainers (individual sound systems)

76. Executive Function Increase metacognitive awareness Teach planning
Work completion: set goal and time

77. Planning Developing planning improves math performance
Discuss benefits of plans
Develop plans
Verbalize them
Implement them and evaluate

78. Fine Motor
Occupational therapy
Handwriting practice

79. Fluid Reasoning Problem solving Categorizing
Similarities and differences
Games that require reasoning and recognizing relationships

80. Long-Term Recall Dual encoding Elaboration Testing Visual mnemonics
Retrieval
Distributed practice
Context cues

81. Oral Language Closure procedures Categorizing words
Create a variety of sentences using same words
Synonyms and antonyms
Paraphrasing
Language therapy

82. Phonological Processing
Phonemic awareness interventions very effective .86 effect size (the earlier the better)
Oral at first, then with written material
Rhyming; isolating phonemes; identifying phonemes; deleting phonemes; categorizing common phonemes; segmenting phonemes that comprise words; and blending phonemes into words

83. Processing Speed
Video Games

84. Visual-Spatial Processing
None recommended

85. WM: Reducing Cognitive Load
Brief, consistent verbalizations
One process at a time
Allow time for rehearsal and processing
Quiet learning environment
Organized presentations
One step at time
Worked examples
Partially completed problems

86. WM: Teach Rehearsal Most have by age 10; 1st graders can learn
Serial and cumulative repetitive process
Repeat first word until next delivered then add next word to the repetition
First aloud, then subvocal
Good maintenance if overlearned
Increase length of list
More effective than elaborate strategies?

87. WM Accommodations Extended testing time Repeating information
Repeating information in a simplified manner
Providing written checklists and reminders of step-by-step procedures
One task at a time
Slow down presentation
Preferential seating to reduce distraction
Provide prompts and cues

88. N-Back Task (Exec. WM) Challenging task but easily administered
Shown to improve WM capacity
Remember stimulus n-items back
Do it repetitively
Deck of cards ideal; prevents practice effects
Parents and children can practice at home
n-back task
What strategy would you teach the child for succeeding at this?

89. N-Back Procedures Display cards one at a time for 1-2 seconds
Start over after 1st error
Should get 10 consecutive correct 3 times before going to next N
10-15 minutes of daily practice for 4 weeks
More challenging: A double n-back
Establish baseline
Encourage strategy use

90. Using Math to Build WM Complete calculations
Remember the answers in sequence
4 + 3 = 7
9 – 3 = 6
Response: 7, 6

91. Discussion
How will you attempt to incorporate processing interventions into IEP or other intervention programs?