1. Working Memory and Academic Learning: Supporting WM in the Classroom
Dr. Milton J. Dehn
ESC Webinar
February 2012

2. Notice of Copyright, 2012
This PowerPoint and accompanying materials are copyrighted by Milton J. Dehn and Schoolhouse Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. No photocopying, electronic display, or electronic dissemination of these materials is allowed without written permission.

3. Workshop Information Sources
References in handouts
Dehn, M. J. (2008). Working Memory and Academic Learning: Assessment and Intervention. Wiley: 2008.
Dehn, M. J. (2011). Helping Students Remember
Presenter Contact Info.
Milton J. Dehn:

5. WM Workshop Content WM screening WM and academic learning WM and LD
Cognitive load
Working memory and specific academic skills
Classroom instruction that reduces WM load
Mnemonic classroom
WM strategies
Accommodations
LTM strategies that support WM

6. Working Memory Screening for Young Children
Verbal: Digits Forward; Letter Span; Memory for Words; Memory for Sentences
Visual-spatial: Picture Recognition, Spatial Span, Recall of Designs
Executive WM: Digits Backward; Letter-Number
WM levels are very predictive of later academic performance; need for LD

7. WM Deficits and Academic Skills
Of children with WM abilities in the bottom 10 percentiles, over 80% have substantial problems in either reading or math, or most commonly both (Gathercole)
Their academic learning is frequently hindered by WM overload

8. Children’s WM in the Classroom
In the average class, WM capacity will range 5 years of WM development
Those with WM deficits have slower rates of learning
Most activities require keeping info. in mind while cognitively processing
WM deficits often mistaken for attention and motivation problems

9. WM and Learning
WM capacity is a general limiting factor for academic learning; specifically, it is necessary for the generation and modification of knowledge stored in LTM
Direct access and maintenance of several separate elements is necessary to construct new relations in episodic WM and LTM
Also necessary for successful academic performance

10. WM and Academic Learning
A core cognitive process
WM predicts academic learning
Deficit predicts need for special ed.
One in 10 children has a WM impairment (Alloway)
Perhaps half of LD have a WM deficit (Dehn)
WM deficits seen in several disabilities

11. Populations with WM DeficitsLD
ADHD, especially inattentive type
TBI
Down’s Syndrome
Language Impaired

12. RD WM Deficits: WISC-IV Means
Perceptual Reasoning 94.4 Processing Speed 92.5 Verbal Comprehension 91.9 Working Memory 87.0

13. LD WM Deficits Comorbid disabilities
Involve executive WM
A broader impairment of W
Capacity or strategy deficit?---capacity for LD
But they also lack strategy use (catch 22)
LTM/knowledge makes a difference
So how do they learn?---under low load conditions
Other processing deficits also reduce WM span, e.g., processing speed

14. WM Markers for LD (Dehn)
74 students evaluated for learning problems
6.5% of students not eligible for LD (using a discrepancy model) had a normative weakness in Executive WM
42% of those eligible for LD but NOT placed had a normative weakness in Executive WM
Of those placed in LD, 43% had both a normative and ipsative weakness in Executive WM compared to only 4.3% of students not eligible for LD
Having both a normative and an ipsative weakness is more predictive of need for LD

15. Why WM Deficits Go With Disabilities
WM is a vulnerable cognitive function
WM is necessary for most cognitive functioning
Reflects underlying deterioration of neural structures
Damage to myelin and axons may be the primary CNS cause of WM disruptions

16. WM and Academic Learning
Language and listening comprehension
Following directions
Learning vocabulary
Note taking
Reasoning
All academic skills

17. WM and Academic Skills Basic reading skills Reading comprehension
Math calculation
Math reasoning
Written expression
Correlations with WM mostly .5 range
Correlations with STM are lower
View other processes
View working memory components

18. WM and Basic Reading Skills
Closer to phonological STM than WM
Phonological STM activates LTM
Verbal rehearsal
Inhibiting visual representations
Executive WM involved in blending
Automaticity/fluency reduces WM load
Vocab. dev. related to phonological STM

19. WM and Reading Comprehension
Mainly Verbal WM and Executive WM
Stores sentences and parts of sentences
Meaning constructed; associations
LTM involvement; background info.
Role of reading decoding automaticity
Phonological & visuospatial STM minimal
Inhibition important

20. WM and Written Language
Mainly Verbal WM and Executive WM
Except spelling is more phono. STM
Lots of simultaneous processing and holding of information
High demands even after automaticity
Executive WM must coordinate memory with other processes

21. WM and Mathematics Important for learning math facts
Holding intermediary results
Visuospatial memory important
Processing speed & automaticity
Executive WM important for coordinating memory components and allocating resources in math reasoning

22. Three Approaches to Improving WM and Learning
Reduce the “cognitive load” imposed on the student
The student can make more effective use of existing WM capabilities by learning to use strategies
Directly increase WM capacity through the use of training exercises (next time)

23. Teacher’s Perspective on WM
Child is inattentive or unmotivated
May not understand what WM is
May not understand how their instructional style effects cognitive load or the cognitive loads of various tasks
Educating teachers about WM is an important component of supporting WM in the classroom

24. Supporting WM in the Classroom
Brief, linguistically simple directions
Frequent repetitions of new information
Quiet learning environment
External memory aides
Overlearn to automaticity
Organized, concise presentations
Teaching WM strategies in the classroom
Reduce cognitive load
General Principles & Instructional Techniques Link

25. General Principle: Visual and Verbal
Instructors should be both verbal and visual
Instruct students to visualize verbal info.
Instruction students to name/describe visual-spatial info.
Spreads load out
A chance for WM strength
LTM: Increases the number of pathways available for retrieval

26. Cognitive Load Theory WM is a combination of processing & storage
Processing & storage both draw on WM capacity
Learner can only focus attention on one aspect at a time
The greater the processing demands, the less that can be retained in WM/STM (linear)
“Cognitive Load” is the processing portion

27. Retention as a Function of Cognitive Load

28. Task Switching (Time Sharing)
To retain info. in WM, one must frequently switch from processing to refreshing the info.
If the processing (cognitive load) is demanding, there will be less switching and more info. will be lost
Theoretically, when cognitive load consumes all of WM; all info. is lost (Barrouillet, 2011)
Switching is difficult for young children
Example: remember steps while completing an online task

29. Cognitive Load
Switching and amount of info. increase the time to complete the processing
Environmental distractions add to cog. load
Irrelevant thoughts adds to cognitive load
Cognitive load is the main determinant of storage in WM (and STM)
In experiments with very high load, children can typically retain one item of information

30. Cognitive Load in the Classroom
Instruction easily overloads WM
By the nature of the material
By the manner it is presented
Focus on designing instruction that reduces cognitive load
Typical classroom learning activities easily overload WM

31. Classroom Overload Exs.
Long, complex, inconsistent verbalization
Requiring two processes simultaneously
No time for processing or rehearsal
No external memory aids
Noisy learning environment
No or limited scaffolding/support
Disorganized presentations
Too many concurrent demands

32. High Cognitive Load Examples
Excessive length
Unfamiliar and not meaningful content
Demanding mental activities
Need to integrate information
Keeping track of steps while doing task
Tasks that require a lot of switching of attention

33. Cognitive Load Reduction
Well designed instruction reduces load
Leaves capacity for retention & encoding of info.
Or, allow processing without need to remember; e.g. facts in writing are available
Or, processing reminders are available
Teach students to alternate between processing and refreshing
Students learn under low load conditions

34. Reducing Cognitive Load
Only one step, process at a time
Allow time for processing and rehearsal
Allow self-paced processing
Provide external memory aids
Quite learning environment
Organized materials and presentations
Worked, partially-completed examples
Keep adding more for student to complete

35. Reducing Cognitive Load
Sequence material from simple to complex
Present material in an integrated way
Include visual presentation
Side by side information (being able to see as all the information in an integrated fashion) better than stacked information (e.g. computers)
Avoid load that is not related or necessary to the learning (extraneous load)

36. WM and Automaticity Automaticity reduces cognitive load
Mastery frees up WM resources
Reading decoding and reading comprehension
Math problem solving
Written language
Organization and coordination
Long-term structures free up WM
Automaticity equals faster processing
Automaticity is the great equalizer

37. The Mnemonic Classroom
Focus on methods that support consolidation, storage, and retrieval, not just encoding
Educates students about memory
Teaches memory strategies/mnemonics
Conveys message that you can improve your memory
Mnemonic instruction improves academic learning

38. Strategy Training Guidelines
Apply to teaching of any strategy
Link to guidelines

39. Rehearsal Strategies (STM)
Most have by age 10; 1st graders can learn
Serial and cumulative repetitive process
Repeat first word until next delivered then add next word to the repetition
First aloud, then subvocal
Good maintenance if overlearned
Increase length of list
Example of 8-year old

40. Chunking Pair/associate items to be remembered as a whole
Combining numbers or phonemes
Chunks become patterns in LTM
Direct student to chunk
Make list longer as training proceeds
Continue until chunking is automatic

41. Semantic Clustering Grouping items by category
Can be done with objects, pictures, words
When recalling:
First recall the category
Then how many items in category
Then specific items
For missing items, think of other items in this category, in effect “recognizing” the response

42. General Skills to Teach Student
Ask for help and repetition
Take notes
Be organized
Don’t self-overload; one task/step at a time
Learn to use memory aids

43. Misc. Recommendations
Arithmetic problems should be presented vertically, not horizontally
Make aids directly accessible (on desk top)

44. Accommodations Extended testing time Repeating information
Simplifying information
Providing written checklists and reminders of step-by-step procedures
One task at a time
Slow down presentation
Help focus with prompts and cues

45. Why LTM Interventions Included
Fits with contemporary WM theories
LTM encoding is a WM function
Ultimate goal of WM interventions is learning (LTM encoding and retrieval)
Improvements in LTM support WM and increase its efficiency
Prior knowledge reduces cognitive load
LTM strategies can transfer to WM

46. Loci
Visual pairing of items with well known objects, e.g. household furniture
Can be in order
See internet video
Loci practice with items in student’s bedroom: Boston settlers in sequence: Native Americans, Vikings, Pilgrims, Italians