1. Council of Chief State School Officers
Module 3 of 6 Elementary Literacy for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities
There are videos to accompany this module. You should select at least one video to view for illustration of the steps. Please preview the videos so that you may select one or more that may be of interest to this group. The videos represent different types of students and are labeled as such (Autism, moderate disabilities, severe disabilities). Video samplers consist of the 10 steps of the story-based lesson with all three types of students. A list of the videos accompanies these modules and includes information regarding length and whether it is a sampler or particular type of student is described.
Recommended citation: Assessing Special Education Students SCASS (AA-AAS Study Group), Elementary literacy for students with significant cognitive disabilities. Washington, D.C.,
Council of Chief State School Officers 1

2. ASES SCASS AA-AAS Study Group Members
Modules developed by Special Education Research Consultants under the direction of Lynn Ahlgrim-Delzell, Ph.D. with contributions by:
Tracie-Lynn Zakas, M.Ed.
Shawnee Wakeman, Ph.D.
Pamela Mims, M.Ed.
Katherine Trela, ABD
Ella Glass and
ASES SCASS AA-AAS Study Group Members 2

3. Content of the Modules
Module 1 - Introduction to Teaching Literacy to Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities (SSCD)*
Why we teach academics
Summary of current research and evidence- based practices
National Reading Panel (2000) & Put Reading First (2003) recommendations
Theoretical foundation for literacy instruction
Universal Design for Learning
* Within these modules, SSCD refers to students with significant cognitive disabilities 3

4. Content of the Modules
Module 2 – Literacy Development and Symbolic Communication
Stages of literacy development
Phonemic awareness and phonics skills
Levels of communication skills used by students with significant disabilities
Embedding Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) devices 4

5. Content of the Modules Module 3 - Elementary grade level literature
Elements of a story-based lesson (SBL) for elementary students
Ideas for adaptation of grade level books & using Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) devices
Module 4 - Middle and high school literacy
Elements of a story-based lesson (SBL) for middle/ secondary students
Adapting grade level books & using Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) devices 5

6. Content of the Modules
Module 5 - Literacy in the Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
Lesson planning.
Standards-based IEPs.
Developing literacy lessons that align with general education content standards.
Module 6 – Families
What is literacy and why it is important.
Literacy activities families can do at home.
Homework. 6

7. Purpose of Module 3 Selection of grade-appropriate books
Participants will learn:
Selection of grade-appropriate books
Description of a typical elementary reading activity
Current Reading practices for SSCD
10 step for story-based lesson
Bloom’s Taxonomy for comprehension
Adaptations for vision and hearing impairments
Embedding AAC devices

8. Why Teach Literacy?
Allow students with significant cognitive disabilities (SSCD) access to age and grade appropriate reading materials
Systematically engage students in meaningful literacy activities
Give students opportunities to experience the same rich reading experiences as their peers
LITERACY IS A FUNCTIONAL SKILL!
Name of slide: Why Teach Literacy?
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to discuss we are talking about teaching literacy to this population.
Terminology & acronyms defined: SSCD- Students with significant cognitive disabilities
Key Concepts:
Activities: While some smaller activities are offered for this module, it is IMPERATIVE that participants have plenty of opportunity to practice these 10 steps with each other and real books. Copies of the 10 steps should be given to each participant after the slide presentation so they may practice and monitor by using the list of steps. Many teachers first learning these steps often have them handy in class to assist them in recalling all of the steps. Teachers put them on a wall or desk so they can see them during the story presentation.
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, Mraz, & Flowers, in press.
Background Information: With the inception of NCLB, accessing the general education curriculum has become a priority for state and local education agencies. As SSCD gain increased access to the general curriculum, their need for skills to manage printed materials increases. There is a lack of focus on literacy for this population or to the lack of research on comprehensive approaches to reading (Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2006). Intensive reading programs for SSCD are critical to addressing this limitation in educational opportunity. In contrast, the need also exists for students with few to no reading skills to gain meaning from text. An option for teaching text access may be to promote listening comprehension and build students’ emergent literacy skills. For SSCD, systematic instruction may be needed in basic conventions of reading such as how to orient a book, turn pages, identify pictures, and track print on the page. Teaching these emergent literacy skills can promote active participation in shared reading of a text in contrast to passive listening to a reader.
* For brevity SSCD will be used to refer to students with significant intellectual disabilities throughout the modules
Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, Mraz, & Flowers, in press.

9. Selecting Grade Appropriate Books
What books are typical students reading?
Plan with a general education teacher at your school what his/her students are reading
Consult the reading curriculum guide that your school district uses to teach reading
Ask a librarian
Search the Internet
Name of slide: Selecting Grade Appropriate Books
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to give teachers options for selecting books that are grade appropriate.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: Teachers should access these websites to determine the age and grade level of the books that are commonly read in their classrooms.
If a book does not appear on any of the first three websites, the first few lines of text can be typed into “lexile.com”. This site will give a score that can be converted into a grade level.
References:
This is a website that gives a summer reading list for students in the second through fourth grade.
This is a website that gives literature and reading recommendations for students in the first through fifth grades.
This website is a directory of children’s literature. It is categorized by age and grade.
“The Lexile Framework provides a common, developmental scale for matching reader ability and text difficulty.”
Background Information: In teaching emergent literacy skills for SSCD, it will be important to preserve the long held value of using age-appropriate materials and activities. That is, the shared reading should focus on themes, pictures, and materials that are the same, or similar to, what is typically used at that grade level or band. An important way to do so is to use the same literature and informational text other students are using with adaptations for understanding and physical access. If the text is from the general curriculum of this student’s grade level, this instruction becomes not only “age-appropriate,” but also “grade-appropriate.” Adapted materials should be selected on the sensory/symbolic relevance to the student.

10. Typical Elementary Reading
A typical reading lesson consists of a teacher reading a book to a group of students
Teacher sits in front with the book facing the students
Students take turns interacting with the story under teacher direction
Explicit phonics instruction is taught separately (Module 2)
Conventions of print are taught both explicitly and implicitly
Name of slide: Typical Elementary Reading
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes a typical reading activity in a general education classroom.
Terminology & acronyms defined: Conventions of print are taught explicitly when the teacher plans to teach a specific skill and systematically instructs the students in that skill. Conventions of print can be taught implicitly when the teacher actively or passively demonstrates the skill and the students learn that skill without specific or systematic instruction.
Key Concepts: To understand sound-symbol associations, vocabulary, and text comprehension, students must have, at the very minimum, exposure to the conventions of print (Clay, 1977). Conventions of print are skills that are commonly understood without necessarily having the ability to read. These might include reading movement from left to right, top to bottom, front to back, knowing the difference between the covers of a book and the pages, knowing that groups of letters make word, that punctuation and word spaces have meaning.
Activities:
References: Clay, 1977
Background Information: This is a description of a typical reading lesson that occurs in elementary general education classrooms. In order to promote inclusive practices we recommend that literacy for SSCD follow the same format.

11. Current Reading Practices for SSCD
Literacy activities may be passive
Students may listen to their teacher read a story
Students may not have the opportunities to actively engage and participate in the literature
Material that has not been adapted, may be too wordy, or the vocabulary may be too difficult
Literacy may consist of only sight word recognition
Name of slide: Current Reading Practices for SSCD
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes what a current, typical reading activity may look like for a student with significant cognitive disabilities.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: Have teachers think about and describe what their current literacy/reading time looks like.
References: Chiang & Lin, 2007; Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2006
Background Information: There is little current evidence base that SSCD receive the same reading instruction as a typical student. SSCD may not receive explicit phonics instruction and/or explicit instruction in the specific conventions of print, or reading/text comprehension. Even when comprehension is taught, it is usually sight word based and functional in nature (Chiang & Lin, 2007). A review of literature from 1975 to 2007 by Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2006 found that a vast majority of what we know about literacy for this population was only sight words. 11

12. Story-based Lessons
Teach literacy skills with story-based lessons (SBL)
Grade-level picture book/adapted chapter book
Select key vocabulary from book
Pair pictures with words
Up to 5 vocabulary pictures/words per book
Find repeated line or create one using main idea of book/chapter
Can be used for text pointing
Name of slide: Story-based lessons
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide provides an overview of some of the key concepts and activities in a story-based lesson.
Terminology & acronyms defined: SBL- Story-based lesson
Key Concepts: In the early childhood literature this is called shared stories. Ideas for SBL is derived from these shared stories for age appropriateness.
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Select books to be adapted from grade- and age-appropriate books that may be frequently found on school lists for suggested/required reading. Each selected book can be analyzed using the Lexile Framework for Reading to determine the grade listening comprehension level. Early elementary literacy are typically books rich with illustrations and concrete concepts. Later elementary grades (approximately 4th grade, but this may vary) begin to read small chapter books with limited illustrations and more complex themes. Illustrations, if present, are typically black and white and may be line drawings.
SBLs feature up to 5 vocabulary words or pictures per book/chapter and a repeated story line that gives a summary statement about the theme of the book or chapter. If using pictures, pair the written word with the picture and place it above the picture. Placing the word above the picture provides a dominate position. Recall that if a student uses pictures to communicate (concrete symbolic), we want them to eventually use words. Even if a teacher is not explicitly teaching the word, this pairing will may help the student move to the abstract symbolic later. The repeated line that conveys the summary of the book/chapter may also be used for text pointing. Students will have opportunities to learn to point to key sentences learning the connection between written and spoken word and directionality of reading.
Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.

13. Story-based Lessons (con’t.)
Select at least 3 comprehension questions with answers and distracters
Modify book as needed for student access
Name of slide: Story-based Lessons Con’t
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide provides a continuation of an overview of some of the key concepts and activities in a story-based lesson.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: Comprehension questions can be asked either immediately after reading a passage in which the answer appears or after the story is complete depending upon the ability of the student. Both immediate and delayed questions may be used with the same story. Picture books remain, for the most part, intact, with very simple a basic modification to the text and pictures in the original book that will be described later. Chapter books can be summarized by chapter, and rewritten in using a writing program like Writing With Symbols This computer program assigns simple pictures to text on a word-by-word or phrase-by-phrase basis. The original plot of the book is maintained, while the vocabulary, text, and length of passages are modified. These types of modifications are discussed more in Module 4. 13

14. Ten Steps of the Story-Based Lesson Elementary Level
1) Anticipatory set 2) Read the title 3) Read the author 4) Prediction 5) Open book
6) Text pointing 7) Identify vocabulary 8) Repeated story line 9) Turn the page 10) Comprehension question/review prediction
Name of slide: Ten Steps of the Story-Based Lesson- Elementary Level
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide provides a quick overview of the 10 steps in story-based lessons.
Terminology & acronyms defined: Each of the ten steps will be explained in detail in subsequent slides.
 Key Concepts: Items in BOLD Print should be done in specific order, all other items can be completed in the order of teacher’s discretion.
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007
Background Information: When completing the ten steps, the first five steps should be completed in order, this will lead to a smoother flow in the lesson. The last five steps can be completed in the order that best suits the teacher’s lesson. Every child should have the opportunity to demonstrate (with or without prompts) every step in the task analysis. The exception is Step 5. At the teacher’s discretion, only one child may open the book.
Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.

15. Step 1: Anticipatory Set Description
Presentation of an object or event that can be accessed through any one of the five senses
The anticipatory set can include:
Object to be touched (stuffed animal or pair of mittens)
Food that can be experienced through taste or smell (lemon or fortune cookie)
Object that describes a concept (ice cube or cup of warm water)
Recording that represents part of the story (violin piece or mooing cow)
Name of slide: Step 1: Anticipatory Set Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the anticipatory set in a story-based lesson.
Terminology & acronyms defined: An anticipatory set uses an object or item to excite and engage the students to help to bring the students into the lesson.
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Many items used in an anticipatory set are common items found in and around the school or home. It is not necessary to purchase item for the anticipatory set. Teachers are strongly encouraged to be creative when selecting the anticipatory set: expensive is NOT always better. The most important aspect of this step, is to select something that will encourage student participation that will promote meaning and engagement. This allows students with visual impairments or hearing impairments to access the content in a non-visual or non-auditory manner.

16. Step 1: Anticipatory Set Teacher Action
Present an object that can be accessed through one of the five senses to represent a major theme and create a sense of anticipation.
Example: Elmer by David McKee
You can give the students an Elmer doll, show an elephant toy, picture of an elephant, or make mud from berries and water
Name of slide: Step 1: Anticipatory Set- Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in an anticipatory set.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information:
The teacher can start the lesson by seating the students in a reading circle. S/He may want to hid the item behind His/her back and state, “I have something very special to show you! Can you guess what it is?” S/He may show the item to the students without explanation, and prompt the students to describe it. Each child should have the opportunity to handle, taste, smell, hear the item used in the anticipatory set.

17. Step 2: Read the Title Description
When presenting the title page of the book, the teacher should use the word “title”
“I am going to read the title of our book.”
The teacher should also sweep their finger under the title to further emphasize their statement
For students who are blind or visually impaired, Braille or tactile enhancements can be added.
Name of slide: Step 2: Read the Title Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of explicitly teaching the student to locate the title.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
 References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Teachers should show their students the title of the book. It is common practice for all readers to read the title of the book at least once, prior to delving into its pages. Finding the title also helps to orient the student to the front of the book, as most books have the title on the front page.

18. Step 2: Read the Title Teacher Action
Every student should have an opportunity to touch and/or read the title. Record the title on a voice output device (VOD).
The title of the book can be highlighted, underlined with a pipe cleaner, raised with puff paints, or traced over with glue and sand
Example: Teacher says “This title of our book is ‘Elmer’. Touch/tell us the title of this book.”
Name of slide: Read the Title- Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in locating the title of the book.
Terminology & acronyms defined: VOD will be used for the term voice output device. A VOD is an AAC device that were defined and illustrated in Module 2.
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: The use of the word title is encouraged. The title can be highlighted, accented with puff paint, underlined with a Wikki-Stick or dry spaghetti, sprinkled with sand (and glue) to create a tactile experience for students. When the teacher reads the title, s/he should sweep his/her finger under the title to emphasize the location of the title. This practice of finger-sweeping may also assist some students in making a word-text association. If using a voice output device, place the written title on the device so the student can see and hear the title of the book.

19. Step 3: Read the Author’s Name Description
Use the word “author” to describe the writer of the story. “I am going to point to the author’s name. The author is the person who wrote this book.”
The teacher should also sweep their finger under the author’s name, to further emphasize their statement
Name of slide: Step 3: Read the Author’s Name Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of locating the author’s name on the cover of the book.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: Teachers can query their students about the author’s job (“ What does the author do?” “He wrote the book”). Once students can locate the title and author and know their roles in creating the book, the teacher may add locating and knowing what the illustrator does to create the book.
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Teachers should show their students the author of the book. Finding the author is another opportunity to orient the student to the front of the book, as most book have the author on the front page. It may be appropriate to discuss the illustrator and their job (“She draws the pictures”), depending on the student’s ability level.

20. Step 3: Read the Author’s Name Teacher Action
Every student should have an opportunity to engage with and/or read the author’s name. Record the title of the book on a VOD
Example: Teacher says “This author of our book is David McKee. Touch/tell us the author’s name.”
Name of slide: Step 3: Read the Author’s Name- Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in locating the author’s name on the front cover of the book.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: What other ways could a teacher emphasize the author’s name on the front cover of the book? What are some ways that the teacher could differentiate the author from the title?
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: The use of the word author is encouraged. The name can be highlighted, accented with puff paint, underlined with a Wikki-Stick or dry spaghetti, sprinkled with sand (and glue) to create a tactile experience for students. When the teacher reads the name, s/he should sweep his/her finger under the title to emphasize the location of the author’s name. This practice of finger-sweeping may also assist some students in making a word-text association.

21. Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question Description
Students make a prediction about what they think the story will be about.
Front cover and pictures in the story can provide context clues that assist the child in making that prediction
Take a “picture walk” through the book.
Point-out pictures that are important in determining what the story is about.
Name of slide: Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question- Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of asking a prediction question at the beginning of the story.
Terminology & acronyms defined: A picture walk reviews the pictures in the book prior to reading the story. This act may help some students to make a prediction. When searching for a book we often look at pictures or preview the text or table of contents to see if we are interested in the particular book. This activity asks students to think about what might be in the book based on the pictures and cover.
Key Concepts: Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: In conjunction with the anticipatory set, asking a prediction question allow the students to engage in the story prior to actually reading the text. Regardless of the student’s answer, the act of answering IS the correct response. This step simply asks the child to make a prediction.

22. Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question Description (con’t.)
All answers are accepted. The student is simply indicating what they THINK the story will be about.
Teachers may offer students the opportunity to make connections to past activities or prior knowledge.
Name of slide: Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question Description Con’t
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of asking a prediction question at the beginning of the story.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Regardless of the student’s answer, the act of answering IS the correct response. This step simply asks the child to make a prediction.

23. Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question Teacher Action
Show cover page and take a picture-walk through text.
Ask the students what they think the story will be about.
Responses can be displayed to remind them later of their answer.
Name of slide: Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes activities for active student engage in predicting what the book may be about.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Once again, there are no wrong answers. The teacher should look for and encourage student participation. Ensure that each student has appropriate “wait time” to complete his/her response. The teacher may provide 3-4 picture/word options from which the student can select their answer. At the end we will ask students to correct their prediction so it is necessary that the teacher keep track of the predictions students make.

24. Step 4: Ask a Prediction Question Teacher Action (con’t.)
Student may choose from pictures, objects, preprogrammed VOD, or verbal response.
Use typical response mode of student
Vary number of options to select from
Vary difficulty of options by using distractors that are very dissimilar or similar to pictures in the book
Example: “What do you think our story will be about? Do you think it will be about an elephant, a steam train, or an apple pie?”
Name of slide: Ask a Prediction Question Teacher Action Con’t
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes activities for active student engage in predicting what the book may be about.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Different students may require different formats of response options depending upon their level of communication and ability to respond verbally. Use whatever typical mode the student uses in other activities. A teacher may provide only 2 options at first, but a goal is to be able to offer 4 choices. Offering more choices allows us to determine the correctness of a student response given guessing. For example, when providing only 2 options a student has a 50% chance of selecting a correct response given guessing. We are more sure of a student selecting the correct response when there are 4 options with only 25% of selecting a correct response given guessing. Even though this step of prediction does not have a true correct answer, this idea of number of options applies to all student responding. Vary the difficulty of the options beginning with easy discriminations such as the example provided here. A more difficult set of responses might be different animals all the same color or words without pictures.

25. Step 5: Model Opening the Book Description
Understand how to orient the book (front, back, top and bottom of the book)
Students should be given the opportunity to position the book so that it can be read
Point out the front, back, top and bottom of the book and model how to open it
Present the closed book to the student
Name of slide: Step 5: Model Opening the Book Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of orienting the book so that it can be read.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: This step is important because it teaches students how to orient the book front and back, top and bottom of the book.
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Students may not have had an opportunity to “handle” books for a number of reasons. Sometimes students with significant motor difficulties can be hard on books. Sometimes they may not have the strength to hold or handle the book. At least one student should be given the opportunity to position the book so that it can be opened and read. The teacher may have to point out the front, back, top and bottom of the book and model how to open it.
Present the closed book to a student. The use of a tactile marker may be employed at the top, right-hand corner of the book to serve as a tactile cue for a student with visual impairments. Adaptations such as page fluffers or handles can be added to make this easier for students with physical disabilities. For an extra challenge, present the book upside down AND backward.

26. Step 5: Model Opening the Book Teacher Action
Teacher hands closed book to a student and asks student to get the story started. Avoid directly saying “open the book”.
Books can be handed to the student in an upside-down and/or backward fashion to create additional challenge.
Name of slide: Step 5: Model Opening the Book Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in starting the story by opening the book and locating the beginning of the story.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: The book can be handed to the student in an upside-down and/or backward fashion to create additional challenge. If a student has limited mobility, adapting the cover with items that will assist the student in opening the book. For the student who has no mobility, program a VOD or have a sentence for eye gaze to state “open the book”.

27. Step 5: Model Opening the Book Teacher Action (con’t.)
If the student has physical limitations, present book in a variety of positions, ask student, “Is the book ready to read?”
The student can respond by using their primary method of indication (e.g. head nod, AAC device, pointing, eye gaze)
Example: “How do we get our story started?”
“What should we do to begin reading our book?”
Step 5: Model Opening the Book Teacher Action Con’t
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in starting the story by opening the book and locating the beginning of the story.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: Teachers can brainstorm different ways to assist students with differing disabilities to open a book:
Blind or visually impaired
Deaf or hearing impaired
Limited mobility of the upper extremities
Students who require longer processing time
Students who have limited verbal skills
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: The teacher hands the closed book to a student and ask him/her to get the story started
This can be prompted by saying, “ I really want to know what this story is about.” or “Can you help me to find out?” or “How can I get my story started?”

28. Step 6: Text Pointing Description
Point to text as you read.
Teaches concept that words on the page relate to pictures in the book and spoken words.
Reinforces reading left to right and top to bottom
Give students opportunity to text point a sentence from the book
Read the words at the same pace as the student points to them
Sentences can be highlighted and may become the repeated story-line
Name of slide: Step 6: Text Pointing Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of text pointing.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Text pointing supports the most basic conventions of reading: we move left to right; and when we reach the end of the “row” (sentence), we move one down and start back on the left. Often, we have to DEMONSTRATE this skill. This demonstration may take many repetitions before our students learn the following concepts: letters to words, words to text, text to sentences, sentences to paragraphs, and paragraphs to story. This may be one process that leads to fluency (one of the 5 components of the NRP findings). Students should be given the opportunity to text point a sentence from the book. Keeping pace with reading and student pointing makes this connection more explicit. Sentences can be highlighted in the book or enlarged on a separate piece of paper. Text pointed sentences may also be the repeated story-line.

29. Step 6: Text Pointing Teacher Action
Read and point to the text.
Give each student opportunity to point to text and “read” with the teacher
Text can be enlarged and displayed on separate piece of paper, clear Plexiglas for eye-gazing, or a VOD
Example: “Help me read. Elmer
the elephant is bright colored,
patchwork all over.”
Name of slide: Step 6: Text Pointing Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in text pointing.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: When pointing to the text, the teacher should sweep their finger under the sentence. Sentences are typically read smoothly. Pointing to individual words may create a “choppy” message. If the student points slowly, the teacher should read slowly. If the student points fast, the teacher should read fast. Whether slow or fast, the pointing and reading should be at the same pace. For students with physical limitations, text can be enlarged and displayed on a large piece of clear plexi-glass for eye-gazing or on a VOD. If a student has a sensitivity to the glare from the plexi-glass, another surface may be used (thin piece of laminate, poster board, etc.).

30. Step 7: Identify Vocabulary Description
Name of slide: Step 7: Identify Vocabulary Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the importance of teaching text-related vocabulary.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Vocabulary is the words that we must know to communicate effectively and the word in text that we must know so that we can connect to the text. Vocabulary comes in two varieties, indirect and direct vocabulary. Indirect vocabulary is word meaning learned through engaging in daily oral language, listening to adults read aloud, and reading extensively. Direct vocabulary is word meaning is taught through specific word instruction, teaching specific words prior to reading, extending instruction to promote active engagement, and repeated exposure to the vocabulary in many different contexts. Specific auxiliary activities may be created to increase the understanding of the vocabulary presented that will extend the instructional component (example: students may cover an Elmer picture in “berry colored mud” to give a tactile description to the concept).
Step 7: Identify Vocabulary Description
Vocabulary:
Words to know to communicate effectively
Words so we can connect to the text
Teach word-meaning through specific instruction
Teach specific words prior to reading
Repeated exposure to vocabulary words
Select up to 5 words/pictures
Words may be highlighted within the text
Pair picture/object with the printed word

31. Step 7: Identify Vocabulary Teacher Action
Identify vocabulary words as story is read.
Vocabulary can be highlighted in the text
Give students the opportunity to read and point to vocabulary as they appear in the text.
Example: Selected vocabulary words for Elmer may be elephant and happy. After reading the line “Elmer the elephant is bright colored, patchwork all over.” Say, “Elephant is one of our vocabulary words. Find the word elephant.”
Name of slide: Step 7: Identify Vocabulary- Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in identifying vocabulary.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Teachers may want to select and teach different types of vocabulary words. Literal words can be associated with an object (e.g., word elephant can be paired with a picture, object, or pic-sym of an elephant). Inferential words can be associated with a concept (e.g., word happy can be defined, described, explained, and maybe even acted out). By selecting different types of vocabulary words, the story can better meet the varying needs of the students in the class. Students who may have difficulty finding the (highlighted) vocabulary word, matching a picture symbol to the word in text may be helpful. To fully support the vocabulary of a book, involve the student in an experience tied to the word (activating prior knowledge by having the student show what he does when he/she is happy). Build hands-on lessons around the vocabulary.

32. Step 8: Read the Repeated Story Line Teacher Action
Picture books often have a line from the book that is repeated and describes the main idea.
If there is no repeated line, create one that emphasizes a theme central in the story. This line can be taped into to the book and/or emphasized by highlighting or underlining.
Each child should read the repeated story line or read the line as a choral response
Name of slide: Step 8 Read the Repeated Story Line- Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of the repeated story line.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: Repeated story line is a line that is repeated throughout the book that represents a common or central theme. Choral responses are ones in which the whole group responds at once. Nonverbal students can have a copy of the line and hold it up at the appropriate time when the line appears in the story.
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Many elementary picture books already have a repeated story line imbedded into the text. For books that do not have a repeated story line, finding a theme, and reducing it to a few simple words will suffice. The repeated story line can be typed on the computer, printed, and taped or glued throughout the story. There should be at least five or six repetitions of the repeated line throughout the book so each student has an opportunity to read the repeated story line at least once. Through repetition, the students may begin to complete the storyline or read the storyline independently.

33. Step 8: Read the Repeated Story Line Teacher Action
Students have the opportunity to point to and “read” the repeated story line.
The repeated story line may also be recorded into a VOD. Leave the VOD near the student so they may show anticipation of the line.
Example: “Elmer was not happy”.
Name of slide: Step 8- Read the Repeated Story Line Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in reading the repeated story line.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Every student should have the opportunity to point to and “read” the repeated story line at least one time during the story. The story line can also be treated as a choral response. Students may take on the inflections and emphasis of the teacher. For students who are non-verbal, the repeated story line should be recorded into a student’s voice output device, so the student can “read along”. Keep the device near the student so they may show anticipation of the line by activating the device at the right moment rather than handing the device to them at the time of the line. To fully support the vocabulary of a book, make an effort to involve the students with an experience or an activity tied to the words in the repeated story line.

34. Step 9: Turn the Page Description
Indirectly ask the student to turn the page
Make connection between text and reading
Prevents students from following direct command, demonstrates anticipation
For students with physical limitations:
Craft sticks glued to the pages to create handles
Pieces of sponge glued to separate the pages
Have a picture or program a VOD to indicate “turn the page”
Name of slide: Step 9: Turn the Page Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains the purpose of continuing the story by turning the page.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: Turning the page is another activity that helps to show anticipation for the story. If a student has limited mobility, adapting a few pages with items that help to separate the pages will assist the student in turning the page. For the student who has no mobility, program VOD or have a sentence for eye gaze to state “turn the page”.

35. Step 9: Turn the Page Teacher Action
Give each student opportunity to turn a page
Requests are made by asking the student:
“How do we keep the story going?”
“What do you think happens next? How can we find out?”
“What do we need to do to find out what is going to happen in our story?”
Example: “How do we keep our story going?”
Name of slide: Step 9: Turn the Page- Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in turning the page.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References: Browder, Gibbs, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2007.
Background Information: The teacher should not directly ask the student to turn the page. If the request is direct, the student is simply following a command. The teacher can model or demonstrate turning the page for the students, and may lead into this by saying, “ I really want to know what happens next! What do I need to do to keep my story going? I can turn the page to our story.” By using the following anticipatory statements: “How do we keep the story going?”, “What do you think happens next? How can we find out?”, “What do we need to do to find out what is going to happen?” , students are required to turn the page without being given a direct command to complete the next step in the story reading process.

36. Step 10: Comprehension Description
Bloom’s Taxonomy; six levels
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Name of slide: Step 10: Comprehension Description
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines and explains comprehension skills for SBLs.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: Bloom’s Taxonomy is an hierarchy of six levels of comprehension. From the simple recall or recognition of facts through more difficult and abstract levels. We’ll define these levels next.
Activities:
References:
Background Information: Comprehension is the reason for reading. Just “calling words”—or decoding– without understanding what is being read IS NOT READING! The use of Bloom’s Taxonomy is a concept that is long overdue for SSCD. Not only are we bringing age and grade appropriate literature to students, we need to bring them closer to the comprehension levels of their peers. If the questions are carefully worded, some students can answer more than very basic, literal questions. Bear in mind, not all children will be able to access the book and comprehension activities in the same way. Different students may be able to answer questions at different levels of the hierarchy. Try to have at least one question at a higher level.

37. Sample Comprehension Questions
Knowledge- questions that involve basic recall skills
Who was in the story?
Where did the girl visit?
Comprehension- questions that identify, clarify, or sequence
What happened at the end of the story?
What happened first, next, last in the story?
Name of slide: Sample Comprehension Questions
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines levels of comprehension using Bloom’s taxonomy.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: These are typical questions asked of SSCD, very basic.

38. Sample Comprehension Questions
Application- making connections to the text
The girl was dancing. What are you doing?
The boy was happy. Tell me about a time when you were happy.
Analysis- categorizing/classifying and comparing/contrasting
Jack rode his bike to the store. How else could he have gotten to the store?
How are the two boys alike? How are they different.
Name of slide: Sample Comprehension Questions
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines levels of comprehension using Bloom’s taxonomy.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: Teachers should develop a comprehension question or activity that directly relates to application and analysis
How does this child see themselves in the main character? In Elmer, Elmer paints himself with mud from elephant colored berries. Students can make mud and paint a little on the back of their hand, so that they can be like Elmer.
Activities:
References:
Background Information:

39. Sample Comprehension Questions
Synthesis - main idea; and cause and effect
What was our story about?
When it started to rain, what did the little girl do?
Evaluation - real/not real, fact/fiction
Can an elephant really talk, dance, and sing?
Is the book Elmer fact or fiction?
Name of slide:
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide defines levels of comprehension using Bloom’s taxonomy.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: Synthesis- main idea; and cause and effect. Cause and effect can be handled by asking questions in an IF/THEN format (If it rains outside, then what can we do? We can wear our raincoat. We can have indoor recess. We can use our umbrella.) Evaluation- real/not real, fact/fiction. Using a graphic organizer to determine real and not real is helpful. Is Elmer the talking elephant real or not real? (place a picture of Elmer the patchwork elephant in NOT REAL category). Are elephants real or not real? (place a realistic picture of an elephant in the REAL category).
 Activities:
References:
Background Information:

40. Step 10: Comprehension Questions Teacher Action
Questions can be asked immediately after reading the line or after reading the book.
Support student responds by offering choices:
distracter options varying number of options, and types of distracters
VOD, pair pictures with words, eye gaze board, etc.
Example: “Who was in our story?” Was it an elephant or a train?
Name of slide: Step 10: Comprehension Teacher Action
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes how the teacher can actively engage his/her students in answering comprehension questions.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: Teachers should ask a variety of questions in a variety of ways. Students should be given a variety of methods to respond to the questions and comprehension activities. When given questions in a choice format, provide the number of distractors (wrong answers) that the student can handle. For some students, that may be one distractor, for another it may be five distractors. The distractors can also be disparate (really different, example elephant and car) or non-disparate (elephant and rhinoceros). When concluding the lesson, teachers may return to the original prediction question to query the students about the main idea or character in the story. This is a summative question. Teachers may also create additional activities to extend the book, its vocabulary, and concepts. Activities may include an art project, listening to music or singing a related song, using sequencing to retell the story, or applying a science or a social studies concept that is gleaned from the book.

41. Modifying Books
Books at this level may typically have repeated story lines, picture cues and simple text.
Modifications may be needed for access by students with visual or physical disabilities and improve durability.
Excellent resource: Strategies & Tools for Adapting Books
Name of slide: Modifying Books
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to describe why modifying books for SSCDs is important to assisting the students to access grade and age appropriate literacy.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: Teachers can describe some of the ways that they currently modify books to increase accessibility.
References: Right click on link, select “open link,” scroll to bottom of page to view resources for modifying books. Some examples of what might be found on the website are: Read Me File for Adapting Books Handouts, Reasons for Adapting Books, Adapting Books Activity Kit, Strategies & Tools for Adapting Books, Guidelines for Adapting Books, Adapting Books Assistive Technology Continuum, and Working With Graphics.
Background Information: Picture books are easier to adapt, because of the nature of the book. Text does not always have to be simplified or rewritten. Individual student need will determine how extensively the book will need to be adapted. Some books may require very little adaptation and some books may require a lot of adaptation.

42. Accessing Books Increasing Durability
Use laminating sheets or clear contact paper to cover pages of the book
Place in book pages in protectors and 3-ring binder
Increasing Access to the Book
Page fluffers such as cotton balls, paper clips, pipe cleaners or craft sticks between pages
Place book on an easel or flip chart
Velcro pictures into the book
Name of slide: Accessing Books
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to describe ways to make adapted books more accessible to SSCD.
Terminology & acronyms defined: A page fluffer is an object that is place between the pages of the adapted books to fan the pages. This will assist students when turning the page.
Key Concepts:
Activities: What are additional ways that teachers can increase the durability of their adapted books?
References:
Background Information: If adapting a library book, removable glue stick can be used to glue in the repeated story line (works like a POST IT). If adapting a personal or classroom copy of a book, each page can be laminated to protect the adaptation or each page can inserted into a clear plastic page protector and bound into a plastic file or binder. If the lamination process creates a distracting glare, teacher may use low-glare page protectors. Adapting books takes time and effort. If the teacher creates a durable, adapted book, s/he will have that book for many years in the future.

43. Laminated, rebound, puff paint
Name of slide: Pictures of book adaptions
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to show ways to adapt books.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: What additional ways can teachers adapt books?
References:
Background Information:
Picture
Cues
Laminated, rebound, puff paint
Objects to illustrate sequence of story 43

44. Unbound and placed in page protectors, objects in sleeve
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to show ways to adapt books.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities: What additional ways can teachers adapt books?
References:
Background Information:
3-ring binder 44

45. Other Modifications Text Augmentation
Scan book and enlarge or use bold text as appropriate
Use puff paints to underline or outline words or sentences
Use foam or plastic letters to form words
Highlight images, vocabulary words, sentences
Name of slide: Other Modifications
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to describe other modifications that can be made to increase the accessibility to the adapted book.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: For students with visual and other impairments, creating tactile experiences will increase the level of participation for the student. Puff paints and highlighters can be used to emphasize single words, repeated story lines, and text in the books. The repeated story of this book has been highlighted after being typed in Writing With Symbols and taped to the page.

46. Other Modifications Reduce or Simplify Text
Select the pages that are pertinent to maintaining the integrity of the story. If there is too much text, or if the text is too complicated, rewrite the text to simplify the language.
Laminate pages together (the pages not needed to get main idea).
Add vocabulary symbols to book.
Name of slide: Other Modifications
Objective/Purpose of slide: This slide describes some ways to adapt the text of a story to increase the book’s accessibility.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: If there is too much text, the text can be simplified by re-writing the text to preserve the main idea, printing it out, and gluing the adapted text over the original text. Boardmaker and Writing with Symbols are two examples of commercially produced writing tools. These programs pair word/text with pictures to increase clarity of the writer’s message

47. Adaptations for Visual Impairments
Fluffers between pages for easy page turning
Place spaghetti under each line of text
Braille or Enlarged print
Textual changes - foam letters, Letters mounted on surface, glue and glitter, puffy paints
Audio version of the book
Highlight text
Add real objects
Name of slide: Adaptations for Visual Impairments
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to provide ideas to adapt books for students with visual impairments.
Terminology & acronyms defined: A page fluffer is an object that is place between the pages of the adapted books to fan the pages. This will assist students when turning the page.
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: Fluffers are materials that can be used to stick in between pages of a book to make it easier to turn the pages such as cotton balls or pieces of sponge. Placing spaghetti under the text can provide a tactile cue for learning text pointing (from left to right and top to bottom) . Braille services are available from several organizations (listed in Module 2). IF the student has some sight enlarging the print on a copy machine or a computer may suffice. To highlight key words use plastic or foam letters, puffy paints, glitter or highlighting to make text more accessible to the student. Books on tape can assist in promoting independence in accessing text. Objects can be used to supplement the concepts/theme of the story. 47

48. Adaptations for Visual Impairments (con’t.)
Tactile Illustrations
Raised line drawings
Embed real objects
Reproduce the tactile sensation of the photo (e.g., for a picture of grass- glue real grass or grass like material on top of the picture)
Name of slide: Adaptations for Visual Impairments Con’t
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to provide ideas to adapt books for students with visual impairments.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts: Book illustrations add to the meaning of text. Adaptations to access illustrations in elementary level books is also important.
Activities:
References:
Background Information: These ideas assist in accessing the illustrations in addition to the ideas for accessing text. Adding tactile objects to the book and the pages may increase engagement and comprehension of the story. Objects can be placed in to plastic Zip-Loc bags and the bags can be glues or taped onto the pages of the book. 48

49. Adaptations for Hearing Impairments
Pairing words and story line with American Sign Language, generic hand signs, pictures, objects, pantomime
Books on computer
Name of slide: Adaptations for Hearing Impairments
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to provide ideas to adapt books for students with hearing impairments.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:  
Activities:
References:
Background Information: If the student does not have American Sign Language knowledge other generic signs (like demonstration of playing a piano) can be used. Adding illustrations or pictures can also assist the student in following the story line. Use the same pictures added to the book as those required for student response when asked a question about the book. Some computer programs store books with moving illustrations for each student in the class. 49

50. Tactile Experience Books
Making a Tactile Experience Book
Collect objects
Affix objects to the page
Large objects can be stored in Zip-Lock bags
Keep the “decorations” simple
Braille text should be in a predictable and consistent place
Visual text should also be included, so the story can be shared with those who do not read Braille
Name of slide: Tactile Experience Books
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to describe how to make a book rich with tactile experiences that can be useful for visual or hearing impairments.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: Materials can be added to books that make them richly tactile. For example gluing a tuft of grass atop an illustration of grass. Some objects may need to be stored in storage bags if they are too large for the page. 50

51. Embedding Augmentative Communication Devices
Record repeated line on a VOD for students to press in anticipation of reading the line
Place key vocabulary (text, symbols or pictures) on VOD typically used by student to be used while reading the book
VOD can be used for requesting opportunities to turn pages, taking turns or read the repeated story line
Name of slide: Embedding Augmentative Communication Devices
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to describe the different options and alternatives with augmentative communication systems and devices.
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information: Based on the individual needs of each student, the augmentative communication can be tailored to suit the specific objectives within the lesson. Augmentative and alternative communication systems fall into two categories: unaided and aided (Mirenda, 2003). Unaided communication systems do not involve the use of any equipment that is external to the persons’ body (Mirenda, 2001). Examples of unaided communication may include signs, gestures and pantomime. Aided communication approaches incorporate apparatus that is external to the person who may use them (Mirenda, 2001). Examples of aided communication fall into two categories: high technology- incorporate voice-output communication aids (VOCAs) including Big Macks, First Steps, DynaVox, and Cheap Talks; and low technology -consist of pictures, symbols, line drawings, and words and may include the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) and picture-symbols created by Boardmaker and Writing with Symbols 2000.

52. Book Resources Baltimore public schools
Name of slide: Resources for books
Objective/Purpose of slide: The purpose of this slide is to provide resources for where parents can get adapted books.
Terminology & acronyms defined: Boardmaker and Writing with Symbols are both available through Mayer Johnson. These programs are used to pair pictures to written words to help student read. The words selected for pictures are typically the vocabulary words. These two programs are required in order to print out the books and materials. It is a copyright issue.
Key Concepts:
Activities: Open these links and explore the resources.
References:
Background Information: Baltimore City Schools has hundreds of elementary books that teachers have created vocabulary words and activities. The UNCC site is mostly middle/secondary level books with some poetry.
Book Resources
Baltimore public schools
Mostly elementary level materials to accompany books that require Boardmaker
Mostly middle/secondary books that require Writing With Symbols 52

53. References
Boston Public Schools Access Technology Center. (2003). Strategies & Tools for Adapting Books. Retrieved January 22, 2007 from
Browder, D. M., Gibbs, S., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Courtade, G., & Lee, A. Early Literacy Skills Builder. Verona, WI: The Attainment Company.
Browder, D. M., & Spooner, F. (Eds.) (2006). Teaching language arts, math & science to students with significant cognitive disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

54. References (con’t.)
Browder, D. M., Trela, K., & Jimenez, B. (in press). Training teachers to follow a task analysis to engage middle school students with severe and moderate developmental disabilities in grade-appropriate literature. Focus on Autism and Developmental Disabilities.
Browder D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Research on reading for individuals with significant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72,
Chiang, H.M., & Lin, Y. H (2007). Reading comprehension instruction for students with autism spectrum disorder: A review of the literature. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disorders, 22,
Clay, M. M . (1977). Reading: The patterning of complex behaviors. Auckland: Heinemann.
Name of slide: References
Objective/Purpose of slide:
Terminology & acronyms defined:
Key Concepts:
Activities:
References:
Background Information:

55. References (con’t.)
Mirenda, P. (2001). Autism, augmentative communication, and assistive technology: What do we really know? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16,
Mirenda, P. (2003). Toward functional augmentative and alternative communication for students with autism: Manual signs, graphic symbols, and voice output communication aids. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 34,
Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69,

56. End of Module 3