1. C1.1 The Early atmosphere
The first gases came from the eruption of Volcanoes and formed the Earth’s early atmosphere.
The main gases in the early atmosphere were:
Lots of carbon dioxide
Some nitrogen
Little or no oxygen
Water vapour
Ammonia
Volcanoes release these gases today (and so scientists think the same processes operated in the past).
The oceans were formed from the condensation of the water vapour to make liquid water.

2. C1.2 a changing atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide levels fell
Oxygen levels rose
Carbon dioxide fell because:
Some carbon dioxide dissolved into the oceans.
Some was absorbed by marine creatures who stored it tin their shells as calcium carbonate which later formed carbonate rocks.
As the number of plants increased, the oxygen levels rose through photosynthesis. These plants absorb carbon dioxide too.
A simple carbon cycle
The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is maintained by several processes, photosynthesis, respiration and combustion
Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by photosynthesis. Respiration and combustion both release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
These processes form a carbon cycle in which the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere remains about the same.

3. C1.4 The atmosphere today. Our atmosphere today…
Changes in the atmosphere occur through;
Natural activities:
Volcanic activity can lead to a rise in sulphur dioxide; lightening can lead to a rise in nitrogen oxides.
Human activity:
burning fossil fuels can lead to an increase of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide.
Deforestation lead to an increase in carbon dioxide; burning trees releases carbon dioxide (combustion), fewer trees to photosynthesise and absorb carbon dioxide; engines and furnaces release nitrogen oxides.
Farming: increasing numbers of cattle and rice fields can lead to an increase of methane.
Our atmosphere today…
Gas
Formula
% in dry air
Nitrogen N2 78
Oxygen O2 21
Argon Ar
0.9
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
0.04
other
trace
How do scientists use rocks to work out the composition of the Earth’s early atmosphere?
Analyse the minerals in them and look for oxides. As more oxygen was present, more oxide mineralswere formed.

4. C1.5 Rocks and their Formation
metamorphic – A rock changed by pressure and heat.
sedimentary – A rock formed by the deposition of sediments.
thermal decomposition – The breakdown of a compound into simpler substances by heating.
electrolysis – The use of electricity to split a compound.
granite – A type of igneous rock that is harder than limestone and marble.
igneous – A rock formed from cooled magna.
limestone – A type of sedimentary rock containing calcium carbonate.
limewater – A limestone product made by fully dissolving quicklime in water. It is used to test for carbon dioxide.
marble – A type of metamorphic rock that is harder than limestone but softer than granite
Igneous Rocks
Example – granite.
Formed by the solidification of magma or lava
They contain crystals whose size depends on the rate of cooling.
Quick cooling = small crystals
Fast cooling = large crystals
Limestone, chalk and marble are all forms of calcium carbonate and exist in the Earths crust.
Metamorphic Rocks
Example – marble
Formed when heat or pressure is applied to other rocks.
Marble is formed from chalk or limestone being heated and pressurised.
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks contain fossils
They are formed from compaction of layers of rock over a long time.
They are not as strong as other rocks so erode easily.
Examples - chalk and limestone

5. C1.6 Limestone Limestone is made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
The advantages and disadvantages of quarrying.
C1.6 Limestone
Limestone is made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
It is used in:
Building materials- glass, cement, concrete
Improving the pH of acid soil
Thermal Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate
When metal carbonates are heated they break down into a metal oxide and carbon dioxide is given off
Copper carbonate  copper oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO CaO CO2
Limestone is heated with clay to make cement
Cement is added to sand and water to make mortar
Cement is added to sand, aggregate and water to make concrete
Advantage of quarrying…jobs and valuable building resources.
Problems associated with quarrying:
Economic - money
Social – the people
Environmental - pollution

6. C1.7 Thermal decomposition
Breaking down with heat
Ease of thermal decomposition of metal carbonates:
Most difficult to decompose is sodium carbonate (10000C), calcium carbonate (8250C), zinc carbonate (3000C) and copper carbonate (2000C).
Copper carbonate will start to decompose to form carbon dioxide and copper oxide. The reaction will absorb some of the heat from the fire. The carbon dioxide can help to put out the fire by reducing the amount of oxygen available for combustion.
The mass of reactants do not change, the particles just get rearranged.
The atoms take part in a chemical reaction they are very small.
When calcium hydroxide is dissolved in water it makes Limewater.
Copper carbonate  copper oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Copper carbonate  copper oxide + carbon dioxide
Zinc carbonate  zinc oxide + carbon dioxide

7. C1.8 Chemical reactions
Word equations A word equation gives the names of the substances involved in a reaction. For example: copper + oxygen → copper(II) oxide Copper and oxygen are the reactants, and copper(II) oxide is the product.
Precipitation reactions
1) A simple example of conservation of mass is a precipitation reaction.
2) Transition metals form coloured compounds with other elements. Many of these are soluble in water, forming coloured solutions. If sodium hydroxide solution is then added, a transition metal hydroxide is formed. These are insoluble. They do not dissolve but instead form solid precipitates. As all the reactants and products remain in the sealed reaction container then it is easy to show that the total mass is unchanged.
copper sulfate + sodium hydroxide    →    copper hydroxide + sodium sulfate
CuSO4     +     2NaOH        →        Cu(OH)2     +     Na2SO4

8. C1.9 Reactions of Calcium Compounds
Keywords
Neutralisation reaction - reaction in which a base or an alkali reacts with an acid.
Limewater – Solution of calcium hydroxide. It is used to test for the presence of CO2 as it turns from colourless to cloudy.
Making Limewater
Heating limestone - Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) turns it into Calcium oxide (CaO)
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) CO2 (g)
Adding water to CaO – vigorous reaction that creates calcium hydroxide (crumbly solid)
CaO(s) H2O (l) Ca(OH)2(s)
Testing for CO2 - limewater turns cloudy/milky as calcium carbonate forms.
Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) H2O (l)
NB – large quantities of CO2 will dissolve to form an acid. This reacts with the CaCO3 making it colourless again!
Neutralising acids with limestone
Calcium compounds that neutralise acids:
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Uses of these alkalis
Farmers neutralise soil
Power stations use wet powdered CaCO3 to neutralise acidic waste gases like Sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides. ( below is the equation for sulfur dioxide production)
S (g) O(g) SO2 (g)

9. Acid + alkali → salt + water
Hydrochloric acid is produced in the stomach to kill bacteria and to help digestion.
1.10 indigestion
Indigestion remedies contain substances to neutralise excess stomach acid.
When an acidic compound dissolves in water it produces hydrogen ions, H+. These ions are responsible for the acidity of the solution.
When an alkaline compound dissolves in water it produces hydroxide ions, OH−. These ions are responsible for the alkalinity of the solution.
Acids react with alkalis to form salts. These are called neutralisation reactions. In each reaction, water is also formed:
Acid + alkali → salt + water
Example
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Hydrochloric acid contains hydrogen ions and chloride ions dissolved in water.
Sodium hydroxide solution contains sodium ions and hydroxide ions dissolved in water.
Hydrochloric acid produces chloride salts e.g. calcium chloride
Nitric acid produces nitrate salts e.g. calcium nitrate
Sulfuric acid produces sulfate salts e.g. calcium sulfate

10. C1.11Neutralisation
You need to be able to describe the reactions of hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid with metal hydroxides, metal oxides and metal carbonates.
Metal hydroxides
Metal hydroxides, such as sodium hydroxide, usually dissolve in water to form clear, colourless solutions. When an acid reacts with a metal hydroxide, the only products formed are a salt plus water. Here is the general word equation for the reaction:
acid + metal hydroxide    →    a salt + water
there is a temperature rise
the pH of the reaction mixture changes
Metal oxides
Some metal oxides, such as sodium oxide, dissolve in water to form clear, colourless solutions. Many of them are not soluble in water, but they will react with acids. Copper(II) oxide is like this. When an acid reacts with a metal oxide, the only products formed are a salt plus water. Here is the general word equation for the reaction:
acid + metal oxide    →    a salt + water
Metal carbonates
Although sodium carbonate can dissolve in water, most metal carbonates are not soluble. Calcium carbonate (chalk, limestone and marble) is like this. When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate, the products formed are a salt plus water, but carbon dioxide is also formed. Here is the general word equation for the reaction:
acid + metal carbonate    →    a salt + water + carbon dioxide
You usually observe bubbles of gas being given off during the reaction. You can show that the gas is carbon dioxide by bubbling it through

11. c1.13 electrolysis Electrolysis
The process in which electrical energy from a d.c. supply decomposes compounds
The process of electrolysis
Positively charged ions move to the negative electrode during electrolysis. They receive electrons and are reduced.
Negatively charged ions move to the positive electrode during electrolysis. They lose electrons and are oxidised.
ELECTROLYSIS OF Hydrochloric Acid
Produces chlorine at the positive electrode
Produces hydrogen at the negative electrode

12. C1.14 the importance of chlorine/Products from sodium chloride
Learn all of this

13. 1.15 Electrolysis of Water Water
Produces oxygen at the positive electrode
Produces hydrogen at the negative electrode
If the gas relights a glowing splint, it is oxygen.
Electrolysis of Seawater
This produces chlorine gas at the electrode.

14. 1.16 ores C1.26 Acid rain Effects of acid rain
Gold and platinum found naturally in the environment as they are unreactive.
Most metals are found as ores (usually reacted with oxygen) in the Earths crust.
Ores are rocks which contain metals.
Extraction = getting the metal out of the rock. Sometimes you can…
Heat the rock to get the metal
Or use electrolysis.
C1.26 Acid rain
Effects of acid rain
Fish numbers started to decrease.
Soils are made acid and can harm plants.
Trees damaged
Erosion of buildings made of limestone.
Causes of acid rain.
Dissolved carbon dioxide and acidic gases in water.
Sulphur dissolved in water from fossil fuels.
Burning of fossil fuels which create sulphur.
Uses of metals.
Gold= jewellery
Copper = wires
Silver = jewellery

15. anode – The positive electrode used in electrolysis.
cathode – The negative electrode used in electrolysis.
electrolysis – The use of an electric current to separate out the elements in a compound.
electrolyte – An ionic compound that conducts electricity when in a liquid state.
ore – A rock that contains a metal combined with other elements in concentrations that make it profitable to mine.
C1.17 Extracting metal
Iron is heated with carbon in a reduction reaction to extract it from its ore.
Iron oxide + carbon  iron + carbon dioxide
Aluminium is extracted from its ore by electrolysis because it is more reactive.
Aluminium oxide  aluminium + oxygen
Factors which affect how a metal is extracted are cost and position in the reactivity series

16. C1.18 Oxidation and reduction
Keywords Reduction – occurs when oxygen is removed from a compound Corrosion – when a metal is converted to its oxide by the action of moist air Oxidation – occurs when oxygen is added to an element or compound Rusting – the corrosion of iron
Metal extraction is reduction
Most metal ores are ‘oxides’
To get the metal we must remove the oxygen
We say the compound has been reduced. It is a REDUCTION reaction
Example 1 = Iron oxide is heated with Carbon
Iron oxide + Carbon Iron + Carbon dioxide
Example 2 = Aluminium is obtained by electrolysis of aluminium oxide
Aluminium oxide Aluminium Oxygen
Corrosion of metals is oxidation
Most metals corrode
Surface of a metal reacts with oxygen (or sometimes water)
This is called OXIDATION reaction
More reactive metals corrode more rapidly (less reactive may not corrode at all e.g. Gold)
A layer of metal oxide forms (this can stop further corrosion e.g. on Aluminium = and Al2O3 layer forms)

17. C1.19 Recycling metals Advantages Disadvantages
Keywords
Recycled metal – when a used metal is melted down and made into something new.
Many metals can be recycled…
Advantages
Natural reserves will last longer
Most use less energy to recycle that to extract. E.g. Aluminium recycling 95% more energy efficient compared to extraction.
Reduced mining which damages landscapes and causes pollution (dust and noise)
Recycling produces less pollution. Examples supporting this are
Lead from its ore ‘galena’ produces sulfur dioxide
Carbon dioxide is produced during extraction by electrolysis.
Disadvantages
Costs money and uses energy to collect, sort and transport metals to be recycled
This can make it more expensive to recycle some metals the extract them
The most recycled metals in the UK are Lead , Iron and Aluminium and Copper
Method
Collecting – requires people to be willing to separate their rubbish
Separating different metals
Iron can be separated using a magnet (quick and easy)
Others usually separated by hand (time consuming and labour intensive)
Purifying – metals are melted down to form blocks

18. Aluminium Copper Gold Iron and Steel
C1.20 Properties of metals
Properties include:– shiny when polished; conduct heat and electricity; malleable; ductile.
Keywords
Malleable – can be hammered into shape
Conduct – allows heat or electricity to pass through it
Ductile – can be stretched into wires
Density – the mass of a substance per unit volume; the unit is usually g/cm3
Aluminium
Copper
Gold
Iron and Steel
Useful Properties
Low density
Does not corrode (because of layer of oxide that forms quickly)
Uses
Aeroplanes and cars to make them lighter (cheaper to run as they need less fuel)
Ductile
Low reactivity (does not react with water)
Good electrical conductor
Electrical cables
Water pipes
Very unreactive
Does not corrode
Malleable
Remains shiny
Excellent electrical conductor
Jewellery
Electronic devices (printed circuit boards and connection strips)
Cheap to extract by heating with carbon
Pure iron too soft but in alloys is very useful
Steel (Iron mixed with carbon and other metals) is strong and hard
Magnetic
Uses (mainly as steel)
Bridges, cars, cutlery, electrical goods, machinery, building frames, magnetic products

19. C1.21 Alloys Pure metal Alloys
Keywords Alloy – a metal mixed with small amounts of other metals to improve their properties Carats – a measure of the purity of gold with pure gold being 24 carats Fineness – another measure of purity of gold (parts per thousand) Smart material – a material that’s properties change with a change in conditions Shape Memory Alloy – an alloy that can return to its original shape when heated
C1.21 Alloys
Pure metal
Pure metal
All atoms are the same size and therefore closely packed together.
This means that layers of atoms slide over each other which makes the metal soft.
In an alloy different atoms are added which prevent the atoms sliding so easily = harder and stronger
Alloys
Examples of Alloys
Alloy steels – iron mixed with other metals
Stronger that Iron
Some resist corrosion. Stainless steel NEVER corrodes (Iron with Chromium and Nickel)
Gold - Pure gold (24 carat) too soft. 24 carat gold has a fineness of 1000 parts per thousand
Copper and silver added to make it harder
Nitinol – Smart material made from nickel and titanium
Return to original shape when heated.
Used in repair of arteries (inserted in squashed and cold and warms with body to reshape)
Flexible glasses frames

20. C1.22 Crude Oil
Key words
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only.
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons

21. C1.23 Crude Oil Fractions
Crude oil is separated into simpler, more useful mixtures by fractional distillation.

22. There are 6 fractions you need to know…
C1.23 Crude Oil Fractions
There are 6 fractions you need to know…
Fraction
Uses
Gases
Domestic heating and cooking
Petrol
Car fuel
Kerosene
Aircraft fuel
Diesel oil
Fuel for some cars and trains
Fuel oil
Fuel for ships and some power stations
Bitumen
Surfacing roads and roofs

23. C1.23 Crude Oil Fractions How do the fractions differ? Key words:
Ignition – to set alight
Viscosity – How thick or runny a substance is
How do the fractions differ?
Fraction
Length of molecule
Ease of ignition
Boiling point
Viscosity
Gases
Short
Long
Easy
Difficult
Low
High
Runny
Thick and sticky
Petrol
Kerosene
Diesel oil
Fuel oil
Bitumen

24. C1.24 Combustion
Key words: Combustion – a chemical reaction with oxygen (oxidation) to release energy. Complete combustion – where all the hydrocarbon is used up. Oxidation – the addition of oxygen.
+ Energy
released
Tested for using limewater. CO2 will turn it cloudy if present.
Any hydrocarbon

25. C1.25 Incomplete Combustion
Keywords:
Incomplete combustion – where there is not enough oxygen for the fuel to completely burn.
Carbon Monoxide – poisonous gas produced during incomplete combustion.
Water is formed just like in complete combustion but there are not enough oxygen atoms to form CO2. Soot and Carbon Monoxide are formed instead.
3 different equations show what can happen:
Methane + Oxygen  Carbon (soot) + Water
Methane + Oxygen  Carbon Monoxide + Water
Methane + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Carbon Monoxide + Carbon (soot) + Water
Different percentages of CO2, CO and C are produced depending on the amount of oxygen present.

26. C1.25 Incomplete Combustion
Problems of incomplete combustion:
Carbon Monoxide is an odourless, colourless, toxic gas.
It reduces the amount of oxygen carried by the Red Blood Cells.
Carbon monoxide poisoning can kill.
Soot can clog pipes carrying waste gases.
Faulty or blocked boilers can produce carbon monoxide.

27. C1.26 Acid Rain
Key word:
Acid rain – rain that is more acidic than normal.
Impurities in hydrocarbons such as sulfur react with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide. This dissolves in rainwater to form acid rain.
4 Problems of Acid Rain:
Rivers, lakes and soils become acidic harming living organisms
Damages trees
Speeds up weathering of buildings made of limestone or marble
Corrodes metal

28. C1.27 Climate Change
3 gases trap heat from the Sun and keep the Earth warm – Greenhouse Effect
Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Water vapour
The Earths temperature varies.
Human activity such as burning fossil fuels may influence this

29. C1.27 Climate Change
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere varies due to human activity – burning fossil fuels.
How to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere:
Iron Seeding Oceans – Adding iron to the ocean encourages algal growth which photosynthesise and absorb carbon. They are eaten by other organisms which incorporate carbon into their shells which sinks to the bottom of the ocean.
Converting carbon dioxide back to hydrocarbons – trapping gases from power stations and reacting them to make butane or propane to use as fuels.

30. C1.27 Climate Change Key words:
Correlation – a pattern which is similar in two variables. It could be due to chance.
Causation – when one variable causes the effect in the other.
There is a correlation between carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and the Earths temperature.
Not all scientists are convinced that increasing carbon dioxide levels cause global warning.
Because…
There are fluctuations throughout history
There are other causes of global warning
There are other greenhouse gases
Future predictions are just predictions

31. C1.28 Biofuels
Key words: Biofuel – A fuel made by humans from animal or plant material that has recently died. Ethanol – A fuel made from sugar beet or sugar cane. Biodiesel – Diesel made from plant material. Carbon neutral – a fuel that does not add any carbon to the atmosphere overall. Biofuels are a possible alternative to fossil fuels e.g. ethanol which could reduce demand for petrol.
Advantages of Biofuels
Disadvantages of Biofuels
They are renewable
Growing crops for fuels requires land that could be used to grow food
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they grow
Transportation of the fuels produces carbon dioxide
Burning the fuels produces carbon dioxide

32. C1.29 Choosing Fuels 4 factors that make a good fuel:
How easily it burns.
How much ash or smoke it produces.
The comparative amount of heat energy it produces.
How easy it is to store and transport.
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to make water and releases energy.
Petrol, Kerosene and diesel oil are non-renewable fossil fuels made from crude oil.
Methane is a non-renewable fossil fuel from natural gas.
Advantages of using hydrogen as a fuel
Disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel
When hydrogen burns no carbon dioxide is produced, only water vapour
Hydrogen usually produced from natural gas and the process releases carbon dioxide
Hydrogen fuel cells are more efficient than petrol engines
Hydrogen needs to be readily available first
Renewable
Petrol stations would have to be converted to store and sell hydrogen too
Cost of the above

33. Learn the formula and be able to draw each of these.
C1.31 Alkanes and Alkenes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons which are present in crude oil.
Learn the formula and be able to draw each of these.

34. Learn the formula and be able to draw each of these.
C1.31 Alkanes and Alkenes
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
Learn the formula and be able to draw each of these.
Bromine water is used to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes
Ethene bromine water  colourless
(colourless) (orange)
Ethane bromine water  orange

35. Know how to crack paraffin in the lab.
Why is cracking needed? Crude oil has different amounts of each fraction. These don’t always match customer demand so they crack them to match demand.
C1.32 Cracking
Cracking involves breaking down long saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) into smaller useful ones. Some of these small molecules are unsaturated (alkenes).
Know how to crack paraffin in the lab.

36. Learn the formula and equation
C1.33 Polymerisation
Many ethane molecules can combine in a polymerisation reaction.
Learn the formula and equation

37. C1.33 Polymerisation
4 examples of polymers you need to know…

38. C1.33 Polymerisation Polymer Properties Use Poly(ethane) – polythene
Flexible, cheap, good insulator
Plastic bags, plastic bottles, cling film, insulation for electrical wires
Poly(propene) – polypropene
Flexible, shatterproof, high softening point
Buckets and bowls
Poly(chloroethene) - PVC
Tough, cheap, long-lasting, good insulator
Window frames, gutters, pipes, insulation for electrical wires
Poly(tetrafluoroethene) PTFE or Teflon
Tough, slippery, resistant to corrosion, good insulator
Non stick coatings for saucepans, bearings for skis, containers for corrosive substances, stain proof coating for carpets, insulation for electrical wires

39. C1.34 Problems with Polymers
Most are not biodegradable.
They persist in landfill sites.
They produce toxic gases when burned.
How can we overcome these problems?
Recycling polymers instead of landfill.
Development of biodegradable polymers.