1. Coding

2. Coding/indexing/categorizing
N.B. confusion because used in quantitative data where it means putting numbers to answers.
“indexing” “categories” “codes” “themes”
= linking chunks of data (text) as representative of the same phenomenon.
Not necessarily to count them (cf. Content analysis)

3. Analysis. Bryman suggests these stages
Read the text as a whole, Make notes at the end
Look for what it is about
Major themes
Unusual issues, events etc
Group cases into types or categories (may reflect research question – e.g. male and female)

4. Stage 2. Read again Mark the text (underline, circle, highlight)
Marginal notes/ annotations
Labels for codes
Highlight Key words
Note any analytic ideas suggested.

5. Stage 3. Code the text Systematically mark the text
Indicate what chunks of text are about – themes – Index them.
Review the codes.
Eliminate repetition and similar codes (combine)
Think of groupings
May have lots of different codes (Don’t worry at early stage – can be reduced later)

6. Stage 4. Relate general theoretical ideas to the text.
Coding is only part of analysis
You must add your interpretation.
Identify significance for respondents
Interconnections between codes
Relation of codes to research question and research literature.

7. Thematic Coding
Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss + Corbin + Charmaz)
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Jonathon Smith)
Template analysis (Nigel King)
Framework analysis (Ritchie and Lewis)
All are types of thematic analysis.

8. How is coding done?
Text
In a village like this ... the young fellows in the village don't seem to have much difficulty when they're out of work – a fortnight and they're back again – word of mouth, I'd say. It’s a different, tricky situation that I'm in – I just can't say, “Oh, I heard there's a job going on building site, I’ll go and have a go for it.” I wouldn't be able to do that.
Code
Age contrast
Residence focus
Young find work easily
Word of mouth
Contrast situation
Constrained

9. Applying the codes to the data
Need to take code and its definition and apply in standard way to the text.
Identify chunks of text to which code applies
Can be phrases, sentences, several sentences or even paragraphs
Coded passages may overlap

10. Questions to ask "What is going on? What are people doing?
What is the person saying?
What do these actions and statements take for granted?
How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements?"
(Charmaz 2003: 94-95)

11. What can codes be about? Lofland suggests: Acts – usually brief events
Activities – of longer duration in a setting, people involved
Meanings – what directs participants’ actions?
What concepts they use to understand their world
What meaning or significance it has for them.
Participation – People’ involvement or adaptation to a setting
Relationships – between people, considered simultaneously
Settings – the entire context of the events under study

12. What can codes be about? 2 Strauss suggests Conditions Interactions
Strategies and tactics
Consequences What happens if…
Sabatier in Policy context suggests:
Causal adequacy
Financial resources
Legal/bureaucratic powers or constraints
Political/interest group support
Official/bureaucratic commitment
Social/economic environment

13. What can codes be about? 3 Mason suggests
Literal - words, dialogue used, actions, settings systems etc.
Interpretation - implicit norms, values, rules, mores, how people make sense of phenomena
Reflexive - researcher’s role in the process - how intervention generated the data.

14. Ways to identify themes
Ryan and Bernard (2003)
Repetitions
Indigenous typologies (in vivo)
Metaphors and analogies
Transitions (pauses, sections)
Similarities and Differences
Constant comparison
Linguistic connectors
Because, before, after, next, closeness, examples
Missing data (what is omitted)

15. Coding supports 2 forms of analysis
Retrieval
Using the coding frame

16. 1. Retrieval
Retrieve all the text coded with the same label = all passages about the same phenomenon, idea, explanation or activity - Literally cut and paste
Used envelopes/files - Now done using software
Enables cross case comparison on same theme.

17. 2. Using the coding frame
Use the list of codes to examine further kinds of analytic questions, e.g.
relationships between the codes (and the text they code)
grouping cases

18. Data driven or concept driven?
Inductive or deductive
Most qualitative analysis does both
i.e. start with some theoretical ideas
these derived from literature, research brief/questions, interview schedule
and
discover new ideas, theories, explanations in the data.
Strauss - sociologically constructed codes vs. in vivo codes

19. Example
‘Dancing’, ‘Indoor bowling’, ‘Dances at works club’, ‘Drive together’
Descriptive codes
‘Joint activities ceased’, ‘Joint activities continuing’
Categories
‘Loss of physical co-ordination’, ‘Togetherness’, ‘Doing for’, ‘Resignation’, ‘Core activity’
Analytic codes

20. Example showing coding marks

21. Code list = Code scheme = Coding frame = Template
List of codes with definitions
Separate from the documents
May be hierarchical
Used:
To apply the code in a consistent way.
To share codes with others, especially in a team

22. Code Definitions Typically records: The label or name of the code.
The name of the researcher. (Not needed if you are working alone.)
Date when coding was done or changed.
Definition of the code. Analytic idea it refers to.
Other notes about the code, e.g.
ideas about how it relates to other codes
a hunch that the text could be split between two different codes.

23. Coding hierarchy Codes can be arranged in a hierarchy
e.g. with these codes from a study of friendship
Close, generalised friendships
Sporting friendships
Sports club members
Work friends
Making new friends - same sex
Making new friends - different sex
Losing touch with friends
Becoming sexual relationships

24. Example code hierarchy
Friendship types
Close, generalized
Sporting
Club
Non-club
Work
Changes in Friendship
Making new friends
New same sex friends
New different sex friends
Losing touch
Becoming sexual relationships

25. Code Big or Small Chunks
Pro
Con
Wide/ high level
Maximize usefulness of code - applied to enough chunks to justify recontextualization.
Avoids prejudicing later analysis
Few episodes can be identified to match code.
Includes lots of less relevant material
Coding vague
Narrow/detailed
Greater differentiation. Clear definition. Easier to identify chunks in text
Important contextual data may be lost.
Loss of meaning.
Too many codes to remember

26. Example showing analysis
One of a set of interviews by Wendy Hollway and Tony Jefferson.
On fear of crime
Will use some of this for a group work exercise.
Part of interview with:
Barbara 65, F, White,Retired nursing auxiliary, Interview covered, Husband's death, ill health, sister - prison, stealing & drug taking, tenants association. From low crime area.

27. INT So you say - well 2 of those things happened after - when you've been talking to this accountant friend of yours. How did it come up? I mean that's er, you'd been alone for quite a while ....
BARBARA They'd been burgled.
INT Right.
BARBARA And they got through a little window like this. Actually 'e'd got a young lad with 'im. And er, Margaret's engagement ring and she says "that was the one thing - that was the one thing, it grieved me more than anything" she said. "They could 'ave the television, the lot" she said. But the fact that they took 'er engagement ring…
INT Yeah.
BARBARA That upset 'er. And er, we were just talking in general and - and it came up and I says er, "I've got a chain on my door." And 'e says er, "it's not strong enough that, Barbara." He says "you really want something else on" and 'e went - his daughter lived up Stokebridge and 'e went to a little shop up there, or something. And got me that chain…

28. BARBARA. …And 'e put it on and you can lock it
BARBARA …And 'e put it on and you can lock it. If you put it on as you're going out, er, its 'ook, and then you 'ave to unlock it to let it drop.
INT Ah ha.
BARBARA When you come in.
INT Oh right.
BARBARA You know, you can push the door and it - oh and it is strong as well.
INT Ah ha. And the 4 locks on the back? Do they date back further?
BARBARA Oh God, yeah.
INT So you had lots of security even when your husband was alive?
BARBARA Oh yeah, mmm. Mmm. Em, I've got one of those dead locks at the top.
INT Yeah.
BARBARA You know, they're just a hole in the door and they're not from outside, they're only from inside. And even that locks wrong way. You 'ave to turn it that way to unlock it. (laugh).

29. Notice Interviewer and respondent names are in capitals
Wide margins and space and a half between lines
Use of contractions
Place names and people’s names anonymised

30. Read through About neighbour being burgled
Lost TV etc. and engagement ring
Old and new security on front door.
Replaced by friend.

31. Mark up text
Annotations and codes.

34. Coding Frame
Crime experienced (the type of crime participants discuss having experienced themselves or by their friends and neighbours).
Burglary
Vandalism
Violence
But these descriptive. Be analytic. E.g.
Low level (not reported etc.)
Significant (with emotional impact)

35. Coding Frame, cont.
Security measures (What measures people have taken to protect themselves, their property etc. both in the past and more recently).
Chain
Dead lock
Burglar alarm
Safe
Car alarms
Personal Alarm
Stay in
Walk with others

36. Coding Frame, cont. But these descriptive. Be analytic. E.g.
Physical, technology
Behavioural
Psychological (lights on timer etc.)

37. Coding Frame, cont. Feelings about experience of crime Frightened
Hurt by loss (especially personal items)

38. Descriptive vs Analytic/theoretical
Just what the people said
What happened
Their terms
Analytic
Use social science theory
Groups codes together
Use terms the respondents don’t or wouldn’t