1. Adam Adgar School of Computing and Technology
Oil Analysis
Adam Adgar
School of Computing and Technology

2. Oil Function Very important for any rotating equipment
Performs two well-known, primary functions:
Lubricates surfaces - reduces friction
Separates surfaces - oil film prevents metal-metal contact
Typical oil film thickness is 10 microns microns
At actual load/contact point may be less than 1 micron
Oil also performs several other, related functions:
Protects surfaces from corrosion
Can remove contaminants and particulates in circulating systems
Assists with temperature control by absorbing / transferring heat
Transmits power in hydraulic applications

3. Oil Types Oil comes in two basic forms:
Natural (or Mineral)
Petroleum based
From oil deposits in the ground
More commonly used type
Synthetic
Man-made lubricant
Based on manufactured polymers
There are many sub-categories of each form
Grease
Suspension of lubricant (both natural and synthetic) in a chemical solution.
Lubricant is temperature released (temperature rises, lubricant gets released until the temperature drops again and so on)

4. Why Analyze Oil Condition?
Oil analysis is the leading indicator of any problems developing on a large number of different mechanical systems
Oil analysis will arguably catch more potential problems across the broad range of mechanical systems than any other predictive technology (including vibration analysis).
That is not to say that other technologies are not necessary or that oil analysis does not have its weaknesses (rolling element bearings being one notable example). It simply illustrates the value of a well-run oil analysis program.

5. Where is Oil Analysis used?
Oil analysis works particularly well on:
Oil lubricated rolling element bearings 
Oil lubricated sleeve bearings
Gearboxes
Engines
Turbines
Hydraulic Systems
Compressors
Chillers
Any system that uses lubrication and lends itself to drawing and testing samples of that lubrication.

6. What does Oil Analysis Reveal ?
Oil analysis can be broken into three main areas of testing 
Chemical composition of the oil (including the additives).
Presence of contaminants (e.g. water).
Particle analysis (wear particles in the oil - primarily metals - a.k.a. ferrography).
It is obvious that tests should be performed on oil systems on machines that are operational. But what about incoming and stored oil - are you getting what you should be getting (what you ordered) ?
Has the oil been stored properly ?
Has moisture or other contaminants gotten in ? Is recycled or reclaimed oil up to the standards it should be ?

7. Commonly Measured Parameters
Viscosity
An oil characteristic related to it's resistance to flow.
Moisture
A contaminant that causes rust, corrosion and oxidation.
Acid Number
A measure of acidity related both to additive presence and oxidation likelihood.
Base Number
A measure of alkalinity related both to additive presence and oxidation likelihood.
Particle Count
Related to component wear, contaminant ingression, corrosion and others.
Presence of Various Additives
Depletion of these can lead to serious problems.
Dielectric Properties
Related to the likelihood of impending oxidation.
There are numerous other tests that can be performed and specific tests within these general categories.
Monitoring the chemical properties of the oil is one of the critical components in any oil analysis program.
critical to the performance of the oil's duties.
Additives help slow the degradation of the oil
Having correct oil with the appropriate chemical properties is of paramount importance.

8. Oxidation Caused by heat, air bubbles, water and metal particles
Chemical process that changes oil molecular structure
Very common problem monitored by oil sampling and testing
Results in an increase in oxides, acids, polymers and sludge
Oil properties change in that the viscosity increases (it gets thicker), it darkens and changes its odor.
Can be monitored by (amongst others)
Viscosity Measurement
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

9. Viscosity Testing Kinematic Viscosity Capillary viscometer
Measures oil's resistance to flow due to gravity.
Units are "centistokes" (cSt)
Capillary viscometer
This U-shaped tube is filled with oil.
Suction is applied that lifts the oil up one side of the tube to a "start" line.
The tube is then submerged in a temperature controlled water bath (40C or 100C)
Oil allowed to flow from the start line to the stop line under gravity.
The time it takes represents the viscosity value
Absolute Viscosity
Measure's an oil's resistance to flow due to internal friction.
Units are "centipoise" (cPs)
Brookfield (rotary) viscometer
Glass tube in a temperature controlled block is filled with oil
Rotating spindle is submerged in the oil
The amount of torque necessary to turn the spindle at a particular rate determines the viscosity value
Viscosity is a measure of an oil's resistance to flow
Absolute viscosity is considered the more reliable of the two, especially as a trending tool, because kinematic viscosity is somewhat dependent on specific gravity (which is affected by many different common contaminants).

10. Effects of Incorrect Viscosity
Too high (thick oil)
Excessive resistance to flow causes:
Additional heat to be generated - one of main causes of oxidation and sludge
Oil may not flow to or through areas that it is supposed to flow (e.g. bearings, return or drain lines). Problem compounded when oil (system) is cold
Cavitation
Increased energy consumption
Too low (thin oil)
Insufficient resistance to flow causes:
Loss of proper oil film thickness - leads,to increased friction, heat buildup and effects such as oxidation
System is more susceptible to loss of oil film in high load and slow speed areas
System susceptible to problems generated by smaller particles than would be the case with a normal (thicker) oil film
Increased likelihood of thermal breakdown of the oil

11. Chemical Makeup: FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Common method to assess the oxidation level (or potential) in oil
Especially useful because it allows the analysis of the additives and the presence of a variety of contaminants.
Some of the molecules that can be tested with this method include water, oxidation by-products, nitration, sulphation, glycol, anti-oxidants, anti-wear, soot and many more.
Method:
Infrared light passed through a fixed film of oil (~100 um thick)
Absorbance of IR is examined at range of wavelengths
Compared to the same test on "base", or new oil. 
Many of the molecules being tested for (additive, contaminant molecules plus the oil molecules) absorb the IR light only at very specific wavelengths. By comparing the used oil to the new oil, an accurate assessment of the quantity and presence of these molecules can be made.

12. Transmittance Spectra – Engine Oil
NEW
USED

13. Chemical Contaminants
Some generated by processes taking place in the oil (e.g. oxidation)
Others are result of outside chemical contaminants getting into the oil and include:
Water
Glycol
Fuel
Air

14. Chemical Contaminants: Water
Water is possibly the single most destructive contaminant that commonly gets into oil. It can get into the oil in any number of ways:
Oil drum stored improperly, water standing on top slowly leaks in.
Reservoir that gets water condensation on the lid, eventually drips back into the oil.
Leaking or no seals
Often people make the mistake of thinking that since oil and water separate (oil on top, water on the bottom), you can see water contamination.
Free Water - This is the state in which water and oil are separate.
Emulsified Water - Very small droplets are dispersed (suspended) throughout the oil. In this state, the oil has a cloudy appearance.
Dissolved Water - The water molecules are actually separated and thoroughly mixed with the oil molecules. Whereas emulsification has water droplets (many water molecules), dissolved water is on the molecular level. In this state, you cannot visibly detect the water

15. Effects of Water Contamination
Causes oxidation -significantly worse when water is present. The chemical process causes acid formation, sludge and varnish are formed and the oil is thickened.
Viscosity changes - Contrary to what many suspect, water will cause the viscosity to increase (oil thickens) especially when oil emulsions are created.
Dielectric changes - Water, since it conducts electricity, reduces the insulating properties of oil.
Aeration - Water can accelerate aeration problems such as the formation of tiny air bubbles and the generation of foam.
Attacks additives - Water chemically reacts with additives to cause effects such as sludge, acids, sediment and many more.
Reduces oil film strength - Water will cause film failure and other side effects.
Bacteria - Bacteria can actually can form in the water.
Water also affects machine components:
Corrosion - Water causes components to rust (one of the solid contaminants mentioned previously).
Acids - The acids formed will also cause corrosion. Embrittlement - Loss of oil film strength and instantaneous water vaporization can cause hydrogen embrittlement of the metallic components.

16. Testing for Water Contamination
Testing for water in oil can be done through a variety of methods with the most common and simple being the "crackle" test.
A crackle test is a test where a couple of drops of oil is put on a hot plate  and heated to about 300 F (150 °C).
If water is present, audible crackling will be heard as the water heats up, bubbles form and grow and finally pop.
Another method is the FTIR (discussed earlier) where the presence of water will be indicated in a particular wavelength.
In order to quantify the water in the oil, the Karl Fischer test is often used. This test will provide a ppm or percentage water value. Measures all water - free, emulsified and dissolved.

17. Solid Contaminants
Solid (particle) contaminants can be quite destructive
Destructiveness:
Quantity
Size
Hardness
Sharpness of edges
Weight
Examples include:
Wear metals (depends on system components)
Soot (combustion by-product)
Rust
Dirt / Dust
Fibers
Silt (class of very small particles (~ 1 micron) and can be composed of many different materials
How destructive a particle is depends on several factors.
Intuitively, you would surmise that the larger a particle is, the more destructive it is. But what if it is large but relatively soft ? So hardness is also a factor.
What about how sharp the edges are ? A particle with sharp edges would be able to cause more damage than one with smooth edges.
The quantity of particles is obviously a factor.
Finally, the weight of a particle will affect how long it remains suspended in the oil (once it settles to the bottom of a tank, it is not destructive to machine components).

18. Introduction To Ferrography
Also known as Wear Debris Analysis
A powerful tool in analyzing the health of machinery.
Wear particles suspended in the oil are separated by magnetic or filtration methods
Examine this debris under optical microscope (100x is standard)
Analyst can gain much information on the health of the machinery from which the sample was taken
Relatively simple technique
periodically quantify amount of wear taking place over time
identify location and mechanism of such wear
ferrography (analysis of oil samples using an optical microscope). It can be very useful since it is one of the primary methods for economically pre-screening oil samples in order to significantly reduce the number of those samples being sent out to labs for more costly full testing.

19. Large Ferrous Abrasive Wear
Example
Large Ferrous Abrasive Wear
100× Magnification

20. Wear Debris Particle Recognition
Appearance of wear debris is related to conditions under which they were formed
This facilitates the identification of wear mechanisms.
Only a limited number of ways in which surface wear can occur.
Each mechanism generates particles of a specific appearance.
Damage due to wear can occur by any of the following specific wear mechanisms:
Abrasion
Gouging
Adhesion
Cavitation
Erosion
Micro fatigue
Fretting
Corrosion

21. Particle Characteristics
Most important parameters of the wear debris are:
Extent of wear
Quantity
Texture / Hardness
Color
How wear is occurring
Size
Shape
Composition
The shape of wear particles can be classified into any of the following categories:
Platelets (P)
Ribbons (R)
Chunks (C)
Spheres (S)
Heat Related Fused Particles (T)
Abrasive Debris (A)
Fretting Wear (F)
Needles (N)
Corrosion (oxidant product) (O)
In analyzing the state of a mechanical system through analysis of its lubrication system properties, the most important parameters of the wear debris are:

22. Particle Characteristics
Color
Severity of the wear (and hence temperature involved) is indicated by particle color.
Colors range from light straw → brown → purple → blue as the temperature progressively rises (from 230 °C to 300 °C).
Brass or bronze (copper based alloys) show a deep red or green discoloration from tempering.
Dark discoloration on the particle surface may indicate surface oxidation (corrosion).
Size
Four descriptions for categories of size classification may be used:
Fine: <10 microns
Small: microns
Medium: microns
Large: >60 microns
When elevated temperatures are present during the generation of the particle, the temper colors of the wear particles are displayed due to the release of frictional energy

23. Typically Encountered Particles and Their Sizes

24. References
Schalcosky, D.C. and Byington, C.S. "Advances in Real Time Oil Analysis". Practicing Oil Analysis Magazine. November 2000.
Barnes, M. "Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy". Practicing Oil Analysis Magazine. March 2002