1. Unit 2: The Evolution of Political Parties
Readings:
Reserves: Aldrich, LaPalombara and Weiner, Neumann, Duverger, Kirchheimer, Epstein, Pizzorno.

2. Guiding Questions Why did political parties develop?
What is an internally created party?
What is an externally created party?
What is a cadre party? Mass party? Catch-all party?
How do we explain the evolution of political parties?

3. Why Parties?
The formation of what we consider modern political parties can be linked to:
1) Growing autonomy of parliaments.
Political elites had to ensure that political decisions could be reached.
2) Expansion of suffrage.
Political elites had to appeal to the masses as the suffrage expands; new types of parties emerge to appeal to new voters.
3) Avenues to political power.
Political elites saw a value in creating political parties as a way to wield political power.

4. Why Do We Care?
Despite attempts to govern without political parties, they have developed.
The circumstances under which political parties form have critical effects on the political system.
Political parties have evolved to meet changing political and social environments.
Same patterns we observe in developed democracies seen as developing democracies become established.

5. The Emergence of Political Parties: Cadre Parties (Pre 1890)
Duverger (1954)
Cadre parties
Neumann (1956)
Parties of individual representation.
Politics centered on connections to aristocracy.
Political office doled out as royal favors of sorts.
Difficult to conceive of modern political parties in this atmosphere.
No attempt to appeal to the masses.

6. The Emergence of Political Parties: Cadre Parties (Pre 1890)
By the 18th century, rule by royal prerogative is disappearing.
Eighteenth century politics centered on conceptions of suffrage based on property.
Limited electoral audiences did not require political platforms that appealed to mass audiences.
But groups did develop within the legislature (i.e. internally created)
Why? To be able to make decisions within the legislature.
Example: Tories vs. Liberals in the UK.

7. The Emergence of the Mass Party: Cadre Parties (Pre 1890)
Constituency organizations relatively weak at this point.
Limited suffrage reduced the need for constituency organization.
Temporary electoral committees (or caucuses) would spring up around election time to promote candidates.
Connections are based not on quantity of members but on quality of connections.
Caucuses dissolved in between elections, so the constituency organizations are not permanent.

8. American Political Parties-Cadre
Framers opposed the idea of political parties (Federalist 10).
Aldrich 1995
Big ticket issues such as placing the capital, and financial disputes surrounding the Revolution were hotly debated with no resolution.
Formation of legislative factions useful to organize this debate.
Members owed position in both chambers to personal connections rather than mass support.
Cadre organization
US parties then begin to “look like” political parties in

9. The Emergence of the Mass Party: Cadre Party Challenged
Duverger: 1954
Nascent political parties were a collection of caucuses roughly tied to parliamentary factions.
Initially, not predicated on ideology
As calls for suffrage expand, demands from movements from outside parliament (i.e. working classes) challenge elite dominance
Once cadre parties have to seek support within the electorate, parliamentary factions merge with constituency caucuses.
Cadre parties are the norm in a social context that emphasizes social rather than ideological connections.
Cadre parties are not as viable in an ideologically based political system.

10. The Emergence of Political Parties: Mass Parties (1890- approx. 1945)
Duverger 1954
Mass parties
Neumann 1956
Parties of social integration
Growth of working class movements pressured political elites to expand suffrage.
Working class organizations could not rely on legislative connections to express their demands.
These parties formed externally, drawing on mass support.
Caucus form of organization was not viable for these parties; branch organization more appropriate
Members would pay dues and become active in local branches of the party.

11. The Emergence of the Political Parties: Contagion from the Left?
Quantity of members key.
Mass parties created cradle to grave organizations for their memberships; party organization always active.
Initially, mass parties were a function of the left
Great for mobilization.
Parties of the right began to adopt the branch style of organization in response.
Push for large membership rolls on both sides of the political debate begins the era of mass parties.

12. Cadre vs. Mass Parties CADRE PARTIES MASS PARTIES Internally created
Organized via caucuses
Constituency organizations dissolved in between elections
Generally less ideologically charged.
Appeal to elites; “quality” of membership key.
Were predominantly liberal or conservative.
Externally created
Organized via branches
Constituency organizations permanently in place.
Generally more ideologically charged.
Appeal to masses; “quantity” of membership key.
Predominantly socialist/social democrat or Christian democrat.
CADRE PARTIES
MASS PARTIES

13. American Political Parties-Mass
US never develops truly mass based parties per se; party funding never based on dues.
Epstein 1966:
US political parties remain funded by notables but attempt to appeal to masses.
Aldrich 1995:
Van Buren attempted to create a party “bigger than its individuals”.
Created mass based electoral mechanisms to win election in disparate regions; ideological vagueness suited party’s electoral goals.
Whigs follow suit; Whigs and Democrats compete to controls spoils of office.
Arguably collude to prevent the issue of slavery from coming to the forefront.

14. A Hybrid? Devotee Parties
Neumann 1956
Parties of total integration
Seek to encapsulate the lives of the citizenry
Duverger 1956
Devotee parties
A type of mass party.
Aim to enroll the masses but closely guard the “purity” of the movement.
More open than caucuses but more restrictive than mss parties
Typically referred to communist and fascist parties

15. A Hybrid? Devotee Parties
Organization
Communist parties adopt a cell rather than a branch structure.
Branch unites members on the basis of location
Cell unites members on the basis of occupation rather than location.
Typically much smaller than branches, intensity of devotion to cause is key.
Fascist parties adopt a militia rather than a branch or cell approach
Militias tend to adopt a more military facade.
Involvement not limited to the typically “political” (i.e. violence/intimidation)

16. The Emergence of Political Parties: Catch All Parties (1945 to approx 1970)
Kirchheimer 1966
Catch all parties:
1) Mass party in a post ideological state
2) Electoral success trumps ideology.
Major parties cooperate to forestall a rise in political extremism.
Socialist parties are finally brought into government.
As socialist parties enter government, class distinctions begin to wane.
Political parties begin to look for votes “outside their base” to gain political advantage.

17. The Emergence of Political Parties: Catch All Parties (1945 to approx 1970)
Kirchheimer 1966
Strategy involves:
1) jettisoning “ideological baggage”
2) trumpeting efficiency of administration over ideological goals.
3) reducing the role of individual party member while boosting the role of the central party.
4) reducing emphasis on classe gardée to pull votes from other societal groupings.
5) creating channels within various interest groups to boost electoral support.
Only major parties can make this transition.
Not all parties will go this route.
Example: Niche parties

18. The Emergence of Political Parties: Contagion from the Right?
Epstein 1967
Catch all strategy facilitated by new communications and informational technology (i.e. TV).
TV reduces the emphasis on building mass membership bases.
Catch all parties need access to funds to buy advertising;.
No problem for the middle class parties but tough for working class parties.
Parties seek to get the funds necessary to compete effectively.
Unions become key for parties of the left; business organizations for parties of the right.

19. Consequences of Catch All?
Problematic.
Mass parties provide critical integration and expressive functions not provided by catch all parties.
Reduced focus on controversial legislation.
Catch all parties may lose their traditional supporters as a result.
Normal.
Allows parties to jettison more ideological components.
Political parties are free to compromise.
Parties can gain freedom from ideological activists or groups.
KIRCHHEIMER 1966
EPSTEIN 1967

20. The Emergence of Political Parties: Electoral-Professional Parties
Emphasize an elected bureaucracy.
Appeal to ‘electorate of belonging’
Internal leaders are “critical”
Financing through membership dues.
Emphasize ideology.
Emphasize political professionals in campaigns.
Appeal to ‘opinion electorate’
Public leadership is “critical”
Financing through public funds and/or interest groups.
Emphasize leadership and specific issues.
PANEBIANCO 1988
MASS BUREAUCRATIC
PANEBIANCO 1988
ELECTORAL PROFESSIONAL

21. Consequences of Catch All? Policy Convergence
Pizzorno 1981
Convergence: Party statements and policies look different to party specialists and activists but not to the electorate.
Linked to adoption of catch-all strategies as well as full expansion of the suffrage.
External pressure groups have been accepted into the system; their demands have now become “negotiable”
May reduce ideological spread between governing parties.
But some argue this fosters disillusionment.

22. American Political Parties: Catch All
US political parties are typically viewed as cadre parties.
Mass parties never caught on in the US
Although both the Democrats and Republicans typically make “catch-all type” electoral appeals.
Aldrich 1995:
Suggests evidence of convergence until the 1970’s.
Highlights the role of supporters and activists to both major political parties.
Present era: seeing a return to ideological differentiation amongst the major parties.

23. Conclusions: Prelude to Cartel Parties
Should point out that these are ideal types.
Some overlap between eras.
Some systems have parties with many different organizational types.
Example: Canada
One organizational type has not necessarily “won out” across all democratic systems.
Convergence occurring in advanced democracies.
Developing democracies show a similar pattern once the party system stabilizes.
The typical response has been more elite cooperation across parties rather than differentiation.
Katz and Mair 1997:
New laws have allowed “accepted” parties to “collude” to prevent the rise of new parties and maintain control of the governing apparatus.
It has been argued that the “cartelization” of party systems is prompting a rise in political extremism.

24. Next Unit Game: Primitive Politics Theme: Parties and Membership
Readings:
Ware CH 2 and D/W Ch 5