1. The state of nature and social contract theory
Michael Lacewing
© Michael Lacewing

2. The origin of the state
How does political organization begin? Why have a state at all?
Historical
Philosophical: imagine being without it – what reason is there to bring it about?
‘State of nature’: no political organization, no laws
Everyone is ‘free’; how do we become bound by laws?

3. Hobbes on state of nature
Self-preservation
Conflict of ‘natural right’
Justice depends on laws
State of ‘war’
Life is ‘solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short’

4. Hobbes on contract
Self-preservation is threatened: it is rational to agree to political organization
‘Laws of Nature’: rationality in the service of self-interest
First: ‘That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre’
Agree with others to give up natural right and submit to law

5. Why agree? Egoism: because it is in my self-interest
Contractarianism: the state is the result of an agreement about how to behave that people have reached because they realise it is in their self-interest
This is also ‘rational’: it is rational to do what benefits oneself

6. The social contract
Better not to be harmed by others – hence constraints on others’ behaviour; but better not to be constrained
Solution: agree to constraints given that others agree; not best for me, but best I can get
But before we have agreed, how can we trust others to keep the contract?
Irrational emotions
Short-sighted

7. Prisoner’s Dilemma Barry confesses Barry doesn’t confess
Adam confesses
Both get 7 years
Adam is free, Barry gets 10 years
Adam doesn’t confess
Adam gets 10 years, Barry is free
Both get 2 years

8. The ‘free rider’ problem
In a situation of trust, if everyone else is acting morally, it is even better to act self-interestedly – at least if you can get away with it.
But how can I trust others to keep the contract?
The contract is collectively in everyone’s self-interest, but it is in each person’s self-interest to break the agreement – knowing this, we won’t trust each other! 8

9. Locke on state of nature
Law of Nature is moral: no person may subordinate another, harm his life, health, liberty or possessions (except in self-defence), and furthermore, that we should help each other when this does not harm ourselves
No scarcity: each can provide for themselves, and prefer this over violence
But what if some are violent?

10. Contract and punishment
Equality: we all have the right to punish violations of the Law of Nature
But can we enforce punishment?
Three problems:
Disagreements on violations
Biased application
Lack of power
State solves these problems

11. What kind of state?
Hobbes: we can only be sure that people will keep the contract if they are forced to
State must have the power to create and enforce whatever laws it judges are necessary
Absolute sovereign: a single person or political body on whom there are no restraints of law.
Locke: this is more dangerous than state of nature
Only rational to agree to some form of democracy, in which equality and liberty are preserved

12. Objections
Social contract theory is an unhelpful fiction, because social organization is natural for us
Because it is natural, we don’t need to justify it – we never gave up natural freedom
Hume on cooperation: We need more than we can provide ourselves
We lack power
We lack ability
We can face misfortune

13. Objections Working as a group:
We have greater power, through division of labour
We can get what we can’t produce ourselves, through exchange of good
We can provide mutual support through misfortune
Rules of justice and punishment are also in our self-interest, and evolve as a result