1. History of Physical Education
C H A P T E R 1
History of Physical Education
Chapter 1

2. Colonization Early 1600s to 1700s
Early New England colonists
Puritan influence: Play was “snare of the devil”
Later colonization
Increased focus on education and play
Benjamin Franklin: Early proponent of physical activity for children
Thomas Jefferson: Physical exercise should be part of education
Early New England colonists did not consider play to be important. Hard work and church were the cornerstones of society.
As colonies developed, more time was available for developing schools and educational programs. The idea that play was important for children was beginning to take hold.

3. Early American Period Mid-1700s to 1900
Physical training and hygiene (health)
Early emphasis, especially for men
Development of systems
German (Turner) system
Swedish system
American systems
Physical training and physical culture were the terms used for fitness, whereas hygiene was the term used for health.
These concepts were applied to men: the focus was on keeping men strong so they could work hard.

4. German (Turner) System of Gymnastics
Emphasis: Developing strong, healthy men
Use of heavy handheld weights, calisthenics, and apparatuses (ropes, ladders, bars, rings, vaults)
Leaders
Charles Follen: First college gym at Harvard College
Francis Lieber: Opened first swimming pool
Charles Beck: Included PE as part of education program at the Round Hill School, Massachusetts
Gymnastics was another term used to define physical training. The term does not refer to the gymnastics of today, although horses, parallel bars, and rings were among the training equipment used.
Charles Beck is considered the first PE teacher in America.

5. Swedish System of Gymnastics
Emphasis: Therapeutic approach
Develop heart and lungs through movement patterns
Hold movements on teacher’s command
Leaders
Hartwig Nissen: Director for Boston schools
Nils Posse: Started the Posse Normal School
Amy Morris Homans: Director of Normal School of Gymnastics
Normal schools were teacher training schools. Many colleges and universities of today started out as normal schools.
The Swedish system of gymnastics focused on how the feet were positioned and how the body, arms, or legs changed position with each movement. It was similar to isometrics in that participants held a position for a time before moving on to the next position.

6. American Systems and Leaders
Emphasis
Modification of early systems and advancement in physical training and hygiene concepts
Catharine Beecher’s system
Calisthenics for girls and women to help develop good posture, strength, and grace
Less rigorous without excessive use of apparatuses
Movements to music (continued)
Physical training for females was not considered appropriate at the time; however, in response to the poor health and condition of girls and women, Catharine Beecher developed her program to enhance the health of females (eventually leading to an “exercise” book for families).

7. American Systems and Leaders (continued)
Robert Roberts’ system (YMCA)
Balance and symmetry of muscles
Importance of daily hygiene and physical activity
Dio Lewis’ system: New gymnastics
Exercises for everyone using weighted beanbags, wooden rings, wands, dumbbells, and clubs
Lighter weights and more repetitions
Roberts’ system emphasized the need for symmetry. He believed that the German and Swedish systems made men too strong in certain areas (i.e., chest and pectorals were so strong that men became hunched).
The YMCA was an important establishment for developing physical training, along with enhancing moral and ethical character and providing a community for men.

8. Dio Lewis’ Exercises

9. American Systems and Leaders (continued)
Edward Hitchcock’s system
Personalized hygiene program
Collected pre- and postanthropometric measurements
Dudley Sargent’s system
Modified and developed exercise machines
Included individual remedial or corrective exercises
Developed Harvard Summer School for PE (continued)
Hitchcock was the director of the Department of Hygiene and Physical Culture at Amherst College in Massachusetts, the first of such departments. He required his students to engage in physical training four days a week.
Sargent’s Harvard Summer School was not part of Harvard College; credit was not given for physical activity at the college level. Sargent trained many PE teachers in his system through his summer school. He was also the director of the Hemenway Gym at Harvard College and given the rank of assistant professor. This was noteworthy given that the area of physical training (PE) was not considered a worthy subject area.

10. American Systems and Leaders (continued)
Delphine Hanna
35 years at Oberlin College, Ohio
First woman to use anthropometric measurements and corrective procedures in her PE program
First woman appointed full professor in PE
Oberlin College
First college to offer a teacher prep program in PE for credit
Delphine Hanna paved the way for future female physical educators at the university level. Many future leaders were taught by Delphine Hanna.

11. Important Events Adelphi conference in Brooklyn, 1885
Association for the Advancement of PE (AAPE), the birth of the national organization
Boston conference, 1889
What should be the focus of physical education?
Discussion and controversy about which system(s) to use lead to upcoming changes.

12. Early 20th Century, 1900 to 1930 Early emphasis
The new physical education: Educate through the physical (develop the body, as well as the spirit and mind)
Leaders of the new physical education
Thomas Wood: Natural gymnastics
Clark Hetherington: Believed education should address these areas: (1) organic, (2) psychomotor, (3) character, and (4) intellectual
The new physical education came about as a result of the educational philosophy of the time, which was influenced by John Dewey’s social (progressive) education philosophy.
Clark Hetherington believed that physical education should address the organic (development of vital organs through muscular training and nutrition); the psychomotor (enhancement of neuromuscular system and skilled movements); character (social and spiritual); and the intellectual (enhancement of natural incentives to learn).

13. Trends Playground movement More four-year teacher prep programs
Luther Gulick: Outdoor and recreational education programs
More four-year teacher prep programs
Prevalence of sports, games, and dance in PE programs
Increased scientific study of the effects of physical training
Gulick was a leader in the playground movement. He was a strong advocate of recreation and was instrumental in the development of many early programs such as the Playground Association of America, Boy Scouts, and Camp Fire Girls, and established programs in the YMCA.

14. Mid-20th Century, 1930 to 1970 Issues Fitness tests in PE programs
Poor fitness levels of military
Poor fitness levels of school-aged children (Kraus- Weber tests)
Fitness tests in PE programs
Youth fitness test by AAHPER, 1957
President’s Physical Fitness Award Program, 1966
Kraus-Weber tests consisted of simple flexibility assessments of the low back and the flexibility and strength of abdominals. Results led to recommendations of regular physical activity and intervals of fitness testing. They resulted in a renewed belief in the importance of PE in school programs.
President Eisenhower established the President’s Council on Youth Fitness in 1956, which led to the President’s Physical Fitness Award Program by President Lyndon Johnson in President Kennedy continued an emphasis on national fitness.

15. Influential Leaders Jay Nash Rosalind Cassidy Charles McCoy
Outdoor education and recreation
Rosalind Cassidy
Movement education for children
Charles McCoy
Substantial research in physical education
Impetus for future changes

16. Trends Physical education emphases
− Sports, recreation, and lifetime activities
Leaders were more likely to have PhDs and EdDs than to be medical doctors (MDs)
Advancement in research and fitness

17. Late 20th Century, 1970 to 2000
Pressure for educational accountability
NASPE National Standards for PE, 1995
Shift to academic focus
Emergence of subdisciplines, more course offerings, and department name changes
AAHPERD
Dance was added to the Alliance in 1979
The traditional PE programs (preparing students to become PE teachers) were changing. Students could study other subdisciplines such as motor learning, exercise physiology, biomechanics, and sport psychology, which did not reflect the traditional name of physical education. Thus, departments changed names (e.g., Department of Kinesiology; Department of Physical Activity). Professional organizations also began to change names to reflect the changing nature of subdisciplines, and many new specialized organizations were created.

18. Development of Teaching Models
Movement education model
Explore and refine fundamental movements
Concepts-based model
Movement learned through subdiscipline concepts
Responsibility model
Don Hellison
Responsibility levels for students to achieve (continued)
Eleanor Metheny was influential in developing the movement education model.
Don Hellison’s responsibility model was first developed to enhance social skills, especially for students at risk (e.g., troubled inner-city students). The levels of responsibility address learning to respect others by controlling one’s emotions, participating in class, being able to work independently of the teacher, and helping others.

19. Development of Teaching Models (continued)
Sport education model
Experience multifaceted aspects of sports
Tactical games model
Learn games through understanding of strategies
Cooperative models
Group initiatives, ropes courses, outdoor adventure education
(continued)
Daryl Siedentop was instrumental in sport education.
The tactical games concept came to the United States by way of England.

20. Development of Teaching Models (continued)
Fitness education model
Health-related fitness emphasis
Fitness-related programs and testing
Fitness for Life, by Charles Corbin
PE4life, Developed by Phil Lawler
SPARK: Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids
Fitnessgram: Criterion-referenced fitness tests
A health-related emphasis addresses cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, and body composition.
Fitness for Life is a book written for secondary-level students in PE.
PE4life is a health and wellness−based program that addresses the needs of all students, not just the physically gifted.
SPARK is a research-based program to help improve the quality of physical activity, fitness, and children’s health.
Fitnessgram was developed to identify a criterion-based level of performance, the healthy fitness zones. Previous fitness tests were norm based (i.e., based on percentiles). Eventually, the President’s Physical Fitness Tests included criterion-referenced standards.

21. Federal Mandates 1972 Title IX (part of the Education Amendment Act)
1975 PL , Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act
1990 Individuals With Disabilities Act (IDEA)
1991 No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Title IX: Equal sport and PE opportunities for females. It raised a number of issues in PE, such as coed classes.
Public Law : Free and appropriate public education for all handicapped children.
IDEA: changed terminology to include individuals with disabilities; also included the term least restrictive environment, which did not necessarily mean totally inclusive classrooms.
NCLB: Schools had to show improvement in core subject areas, such as math, English, and reading. NCLB does not consider PE a core subject, which has created problems for many PE programs.

22. Early 21st Century to Present: Issues and Concerns
Decline of PETE programs
Physical education teacher education
E-learning and online PE classes for credit
22 states (43%) allow online PE credit
Finding value
Connection between fitness and (1) academic scores, (2) attendance, and (3) disciplinary issues (continued)
Physical education has consistently struggled with being valued in the educational system. The earlier ties (1990s) with “brain gym” and the current findings that link fitness to academic scores have helped teachers justify PE in school programs.

23. Early 21st Century to Present: Issues and Concerns (continued)
Optional PE credit for graduation
Interscholastic sports, JROTC, marching band, cheerleading
Fitness and obesity
After-school and community programs
Exergaming (active video) in PE
Curricular program shift to an emphasis on fitness
States that offer PE credits to students taking part in outside activities discredit PE programs.
The obesity epidemic has helped emphasize the value of PE in the overall educational program.

24. Summary
How has the history of physical education affected our current status in the overall education curriculum?
How has the history of physical education affected the content that is currently taught at the K-12 level?
Where do we go from here?