1. Reforms lead to civil war. Napoleon III of France invaded (1862), backing the conservatives against Juarez. Install Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico. Juarez’s forces drive French army out (1867). Maximilian was captured and shot. Mexico enters a period of political stability.

2. Creole elites pursued independence and political change out of a fear that social unrest from the lower classes and nonwhites would get out of control. Led by Simon Bolivar Northern South America gained independence.

3. Created “Gran Colombia.” He hoped it would become a federation similar to the United States. He described himself as a liberal and never accepted a crown.

4. Served as president of Gran Colombia (1819-1830). Large size and pressure from separatists caused Gran Colombia to split into three countries; Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador (1830).

5. San Martin was liberator in the southern part of South America. Brought independence to Argentina (1816) and Peru (1821). Liberator of Argentina and the “Protector of Peru”, led troops over the Andes Mountains to set up the independent republics of Chile and Bolivia.

6. To gain the support of the general population independence leaders appealed to nativist feelings by defining all those born in the Americas as “Americanos.”

7. By 1840 Spain only had the colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Latin America suffered from generals with personal armies. These men, “caudillos”, intervened in national politics to make or break governments. They disregarded representative forms of government and the rule of law.

8. King John VI, fled Portugal to Brazil,(1807) when Napoleon invaded. Moved back (1821) leaves son to rule Brazil. Son sides with revolutionaries and declared Brazil’s independence from Portugal (1822). Declared himself Emperor Pedro I and establish a constitutional monarchy. Most nonviolent revolutions in all of Latin America.

9. That concludes the Age of Revolutions.