1. PowerPoint Presentation to Accompany Management, 9/e John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. Prepared by: Jim LoPresti University of Colorado, Boulder Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapter 14: Motivation – Theory and Practice

2. Management 9/e - Chapter 142 Planning Ahead — Chapter 14 Study Questions  How do individual needs influence motivation?  What are the process theories of motivation?  What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  What are the alternative approaches to job design?

3. Management 9/e - Chapter 143 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Types of content theories:  Hierarchy of needs theory  ERG theory  Two-factor theory  Acquired needs theory

4. Management 9/e - Chapter 144 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Motivation and individual needs Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.  Needs Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual. Explain workplace behavior and attitudes. Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior. Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

5. Management 9/e - Chapter 145 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Hierarchy of needs theory Developed by Abraham Maslow. Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes. Lower-order needs:  Physiological, safety, and social needs.  Desires for physical and social well being. Higher-order needs:  Esteem and self-actualization needs.  Desire for psychological growth and development.

6. Management 9/e - Chapter 146 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Hierarchy of needs theory Deficit principle  A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior. Progression principle  A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied.

7. Management 9/e - Chapter 147 Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.

8. Management 9/e - Chapter 148 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  ERG theory Developed by Clayton Alderfer. Three need levels:  Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.  Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.  Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.

9. Management 9/e - Chapter 149 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  ERG theory Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time. Frustration-regression principle.  An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.

10. Management 9/e - Chapter 1410 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Two-factor theory Developed by Frederick Herzberg. Hygiene factors:  Elements of the job context.  Sources of job dissatisfaction. Satisfier factors:  Elements of the job content.  Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.

11. Management 9/e - Chapter 1411 Figure 14.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

12. Management 9/e - Chapter 1412 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Acquired needs theory Developed by David McClelland. People acquire needs through their life experiences. Needs that are acquired:  Need for Achievement (nAch)  Need for Power (nPower)  Need for Affiliation (nAff)

13. Management 9/e - Chapter 1413 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Acquired needs theory Need for Achievement (nAch)  Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. People high in (nAch) prefer work that:  Involves individual responsibility for results.  Involves achievable but challenging goals.  Provides feedback on performance.

14. Management 9/e - Chapter 1414 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Acquired needs theory Need for Power (nPower)  Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.  Personal power versus social power. People high in (nPower) prefer work that:  Involves control over other persons.  Has an impact on people and events.  Brings public recognition and attention.

15. Management 9/e - Chapter 1415 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Acquired needs theory Need for Affiliation (nAff)  Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons. People high in (nAff) prefer work that:  Involves interpersonal relationships.  Provides for companionship  Brings social approval.

16. Management 9/e - Chapter 1416 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Questions for summarizing the content theories of motivation: How many different individual needs are there? Can a work outcome or reward satisfy more than one need? Is there a hierarchy of needs? How important are the various needs?

17. Management 9/e - Chapter 1417 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Process theories of motivation … How people make choices to work hard or not. Choices are based on:  Individual preferences.  Available rewards.  Possible work outcomes.  Types of process theories: Equity theory. Expectancy theory. Goal-setting theory.

18. Management 9/e - Chapter 1418 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Equity theory Developed by J. Stacy Adams. When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation.  Perceived inequity.  Perceived equity.

19. Management 9/e - Chapter 1419 Figure 14.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison.

20. Management 9/e - Chapter 1420 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Equity theory People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing …  Work inputs.  Rewards received.  Comparison points.  Situation.

21. Management 9/e - Chapter 1421 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of equity theory— Underpaid people experience anger. Overpaid people experience guilt. Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes. Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated. Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.  Gender equity.  Comparable worth.

22. Management 9/e - Chapter 1422 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Expectancy theory Developed by Victor Vroom. Key expectancy theory variables:  Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.  Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.  Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.

23. Management 9/e - Chapter 1423 Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.

24. Management 9/e - Chapter 1424 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Expectancy theory Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: M = E x I x V If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.

25. Management 9/e - Chapter 1425 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize expectancy, managers should:  Select workers with ability.  Train workers to use ability.  Support work efforts.  Clarify performance goals.

26. Management 9/e - Chapter 1426 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize instrumentality, managers should:  Clarify psychological contracts.  Communicate performance-outcome possibilities.  Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.

27. Management 9/e - Chapter 1427 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:  Identify individual needs.  Adjust rewards to match individual needs.

28. Management 9/e - Chapter 1428 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process: Set specific goals. Set challenging goals. Build goal acceptance and commitment. Clarify goal priorities. Provide feedback on goal accomplishment. Reward goal accomplishment.

29. Management 9/e - Chapter 1429 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Goal-setting theory Developed by Edwin Locke. Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. Motivational effects of task goals:  Provide direction to people in their work.  Clarify performance expectations.  Establish a frame of reference for feedback.  Provide a foundation for behavioral self- management.

30. Management 9/e - Chapter 1430 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Goal-setting theory Participation in goal setting  unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.  management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation.  when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.

31. Management 9/e - Chapter 1431 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Fundamentals of reinforcement theory … Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior. Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior. Operant conditioning:  Developed by B.F. Skinner.  Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

32. Management 9/e - Chapter 1432 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Operant conditioning strategies: Positive reinforcement  Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence. Negative reinforcement  Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.

33. Management 9/e - Chapter 1433 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Operant conditioning strategies: Punishment  Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence. Extinction  Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

34. Management 9/e - Chapter 1434 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on Law of contingent reinforcement —  Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited. Law of immediate reinforcement —  More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.

35. Management 9/e - Chapter 1435 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Guidelines for using positive reinforcement: Clearly identify desired work behaviors. Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards. Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards. Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards. Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.

36. Management 9/e - Chapter 1436 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Guidelines for using punishment: Tell the person what is being done wrong. Tell the person what is being done right. Match the punishment to the behavior. Administer punishment in private. Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.

37. Management 9/e - Chapter 1437 Figure 14.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management.

38. Management 9/e - Chapter 1438 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Schedules of reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically. Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement. Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent. Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it.

39. Management 9/e - Chapter 1439 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job. A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.  Job design. The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.  Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

40. Management 9/e - Chapter 1440 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job simplification. Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks. Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth. Automation.  Total mechanization of a job.  Most extreme form of job simplification.

41. Management 9/e - Chapter 1441 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential advantages of job simplification: Easier and quicker training of workers. Workers are less difficult to supervise. Workers are easier to replace. Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.  Potential disadvantages of job simplification: Productivity suffers. Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers. Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation.

42. Management 9/e - Chapter 1442 Figure 14.6 A continuum of job design alternatives.

43. Management 9/e - Chapter 1443 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job rotation and job enlargement: Expands job scope. Job rotation.  Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments. Job enlargement.  Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.  Horizontal loading.

44. Management 9/e - Chapter 1444 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job enrichment. Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content. Expands both job scope and job depth. Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

45. Management 9/e - Chapter 1445 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Critical psychological states: Experienced meaningfulness of work. Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes. Knowledge of actual results of work activities.

46. Management 9/e - Chapter 1446 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Core job characteristics: Skill variety. Task identity. Task significance. Autonomy. Feedback.

47. Management 9/e - Chapter 1447 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Moderating variables: Growth-need strength (GNS).  People with high GNS will respond most positively to enriched jobs. Knowledge and skills. Context satisfactions.

48. Management 9/e - Chapter 1448 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Improving core job characteristics: Form natural units of work. Combine tasks. Establish client relationships. Open feedback channels. Practice vertical loading.

49. Management 9/e - Chapter 1449 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Checklist for enriching jobs: Remove controls that limit people’s discretion in their work. Grant people authority to make decisions about their work. Make people understand their accountability for results. Allow people to do “whole” tasks or complete units of work. Make performance feedback available.

50. Management 9/e - Chapter 1450 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Compressed workweek. Any work schedule that allows a full- time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts. Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance. Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition.

51. Management 9/e - Chapter 1451 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Flexible working hours. Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours.  Core time — all employees must be at work.  Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities.

52. Management 9/e - Chapter 1452 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential benefits of flexible working hours: People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities. Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities. Worker morale may be improved.

53. Management 9/e - Chapter 1453 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job sharing. One full-time job is split between two or more persons.  Work sharing. An agreement between employees to cut back their work hours to avoid layoffs or termination.

54. Management 9/e - Chapter 1454 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential advantages of work sharing: Trained and loyal workers can be retained while temporarily cutting labor costs. Continued work  but with reduced earnings  for those who would otherwise be laid off.  Potential disadvantages of work sharing; Employees who might otherwise be protected by seniority may suffer an income loss.

55. Management 9/e - Chapter 1455 Figure 14.7 Job design and individual work outcomes using the core characteristics model. Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.

56. Management 9/e - Chapter 1456 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Telecommuting. A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office. Hoteling. Virtual offices.

57. Management 9/e - Chapter 1457 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential advantages of telecommuting: Freedom from  Constraints of commuting.  Fixed hours.  Special work attire.  Direct contact with supervisors. Increased productivity. Fewer distractions. Being one’s own boss. Having more personal time.

58. Management 9/e - Chapter 1458 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential disadvantages of telecommuting: Working too much. Having less personal time. Difficulty in separating work and personal life. Less time for family. Feelings of isolation. Loss of visibility for promotion. Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance.

59. Management 9/e - Chapter 1459 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Part-time work. Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee. Contingency workers  Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.  Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.

60. Management 9/e - Chapter 1460 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Implications of part-time work: Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands. Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive. Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.

61. Management 9/e - Chapter 1461 Figure 14.8 A sample flexible working hours schedule.

62. COPYRIGHT Copyright 2008 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that named in Section 117 of the United States Copyright Act without the express written permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages, caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.