1. Human Capital and Gender Issues Dr. George Norton Agricultural and Applied Economics Virginia Tech Copyright 2006

2. Objectives Discuss role of human capital investment, especially education, in agricultural development Discuss roles of women and children in agriculture and food security Discuss determinants of those roles and policy implications roles

3. Human Capital Development Improves farm efficiency Prepares children for non-farm occupations

4. Three Types of Education: Primary and secondary Adult education Higher education

5. Farmer Field School in Mali

6. Why is education an investment both for the individual and for society? Individuals receive 10-30% return on their private investment, but society gains from a more literate workforce which is more productive across the board

7. Why are research, extension, and education complementary activities? Educated people can generate and diffuse technologies, while a more educated workforce can more easily adopt the technologies.

8. What is the brain drain and what might slow it down? Brain drain – Educated people leave an area or country to seek higher paying employment elsewhere Slowing it down –Higher paying local jobs –Contracts for educational support

9. Roles of women and children Women have dual roles: household and farm Women produce food, process food, preserve food, prepare food, purvey food. They work in the field, tend livestock, thresh grain, carry produce to market. Children begin working on the farm at a very young age

10. Women and children at work in agriculture

11. Female farm workers in India

12. Statistics and Facts Women produce half of the food consumed in developing countries (3/4 in Africa) They complete 90% of processing and 60% of hoeing and weeding They often tend separate plots in Africa but not in Asia and Latin America Importance of women in farming systems is often underestimated Women spend more of the income they earn on food for the family than do men

13. Determinants of role of women in agriculture Social, cultural, and religious factors Population pressures Farming techniques Off-farm job activities Colonial history

14. Constraints to improving women’s productivity in agriculture Weak land rights Lack of appropriate technology Limited contact with extension Limited access to credit and savings Lower levels of education Result is lower yields

15. Policy Implications Need to consider opinions of women when designing technologies Need to focus education and extension activities on women Women need credit and inputs Lack of property rights for women will continue to pose a constraint to increasing agricultural productivity

16. Conclusion Overall productivity of an economy depends on the quality of its labor force Unless gender issues are addressed, in many countries agricultural development will be difficult to achieve