1. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint Lectures Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Eighth Edition REECE TAYLOR SIMON DICKEY HOGAN Chapter 30 Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko How Animals Move

2. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.0-2 Chapter 30: Big Ideas Movement and Locomotion Muscle Contraction and Movement The Vertebrate Skeleton

3. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. M OVEMENT AND L OCOMOTION

4. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity Animal movement is very diverse but relies on the same cellular mechanisms, moving protein strands against one another using energy. Locomotion is active travel from place to place and requires energy to overcome friction and gravity.

5. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity An animal swimming is supported by water but slowed by friction.

6. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.1a

7. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity An animal walking, hopping, or running involves less overall friction between air and the animal, must resist gravity, and requires good balance.

8. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.1b

9. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity An animal burrowing or crawling must overcome great friction between the animal and the ground, is more stable with respect to gravity, may move by side-to-side undulations (such as snakes), or may move by a form of peristalsis (such as worms).

10. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.1d-0 Bristles 1 2 3 Head Longitudinal muscle relaxed (extended) Circular muscle contracted Circular muscle relaxed Longitudinal muscle contracted

11. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity An animal flying uses its wings as airfoils to generate lift. Flying has evolved in very few groups of animals. Flying animals include most insects, reptiles, including birds, and bats (mammals).

12. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.1e

13. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity Animal movement results from a collaboration between muscles and a skeletal system to overcome friction and gravity.

14. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection Skeletons provide body support, movement by working with muscles, and protection of internal organs. There are three main types of animal skeletons: 1.hydrostatic skeletons, 2.exoskeletons, and 3.endoskeletons.

15. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection 1.Hydrostatic skeletons consist of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment, are found in worms and cnidarians, protect other body parts by cushioning them from shocks, give the body shape, and provide support for muscle action.

16. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.2a

17. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection 2.Exoskeletons are rigid external skeletons. They consist of chitin and protein in arthropods and calcium carbonate shells in molluscs. Arthropod exoskeletons must be shed to permit growth.

18. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.2b

19. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection 3. Endoskeletons consist of hard or leathery supporting elements situated among the soft tissues of an animal. They may be made of cartilage or cartilage and bone (vertebrates), a framework of tough protein fibers or mineral- containing particles (sponges), or hard plates beneath their skin (echinoderms).

20. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.2e

21. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. T HE V ERTEBRATE S KELETON

22. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme The vertebrate skeletal system provided the structural support and means of location that enabled tetrapods to colonize land.

23. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme All vertebrates have an axial skeleton that supports the axis, or trunk, of the body and consists of a skull, vertebrae, and ribs. Most vertebrates also have an appendicular skeleton that includes the appendages and the bones that anchor the appendages and consists of the arms, legs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle.

24. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.3a-0 Skull Sternum Ribs Vertebra Clavicle Scapula Pectoral girdle Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvic girdle Carpals Phalanges Metacarpals Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

25. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.3b Intervertebral discs 7 cervical vertebrae 12 thoracic vertebrae 5 lumbar vertebrae Hip bone Sacrum Coccyx

26. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme Vertebrate bodies reveal variations of this basic skeletal arrangement. Master control (homeotic) genes are active during early development and direct the arrangement of the skeleton. Vertebrate evolution has included changes in these master control genes.

27. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.3c Python Cervical vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Chicken Gene expression during development Hoxc6 Hoxc8 Hoxc6 and Hoxc8

28. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.4 Bones are complex living organs Fibrous connective tissue covering most of the outer surface of bone forms new bone in the event of a fracture. Cartilage at the ends of bones cushions joints and reduces friction of movements.

29. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.4 Bones are complex living organs Bone contains living cells that secrete a surrounding material, or matrix. The matrix consists of flexible fibers of the protein collagen, which keep bones flexible, and crystals of a mineral made of calcium and phosphate, which resists compression.

30. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.4 Bones are complex living organs Long bones have a central cavity storing fatty yellow bone marrow and spongy bone located at the ends of bones containing red bone marrow, a specialized tissue that produces blood cells.

31. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.4 Cartilage Spongy bone (contains red bone marrow) Compact bone Central cavity Yellow cone marrow Cartilage Blood vessels Fibrous connective tissue

32. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.5 CONNECTION: Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries Bone cells repair bones and reshape bones throughout life. Broken bones are realigned and immobilized, and bone cells build new bone, healing the break.

33. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.5a

34. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.5 CONNECTION: Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by low bone mass and structural deterioration and less likely if a person has high levels of calcium in the diet, has sufficient intake of vitamin D, exercises regularly, and does not smoke.

35. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.5b

36. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.6 Joints permit different types of movement Joints allow limited movement of bones. Bands of strong fibrous connective tissue called ligaments hold together the bones of movable joints.

37. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.6 Joints permit different types of movement Different joints permit various movements. Ball-and-socket joints enable rotation in the arms and legs. Hinge joints in the elbows and knees permit movement in a single plane. Pivot joints enable the rotation of the forearm at the elbow.

38. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.6-0 Head of humerus Scapula Ball-and-socket jointHinge joint Ulna Humerus Pivot joint Ulna Radius

39. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. M USCLE C ONTRACTION AND M OVEMENT

40. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.7 The skeleton and muscles interact in movement Muscles and bones interact to produce movement. Muscles are connected to bones by tendons and can only contract, requiring an antagonistic muscle to reverse the action and relengthen muscles.

41. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.7 Biceps Triceps contracted, biceps relaxed Biceps contracted, triceps relaxed (extended) Biceps Triceps Tendons

42. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus Muscle fibers are cells that consist of bundles of myofibrils. Skeletal muscle cells are cylindrical, have many nuclei, and are oriented parallel to each other. Myofibrils contain overlapping thick filaments composed primarily of the protein myosin and thin filaments composed primarily of the protein actin.

43. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus Sarcomeres are repeating groups of overlapping thick and thin filaments and the contractile apparatus in a myofibril—the muscle fiber’s fundamental unit of action.

44. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.8-0 Muscle Several muscle fibers Single muscle fiber (cell) Plasma membrane Myofibril Nuclei Z line Light band Light band Dark band Sarcomere Z line Sarcomere Thick filaments (myosin) Thin filaments (actin)

45. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.8-1 Muscle Several muscle fibers Single muscle fiber (cell)

46. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.8-2 Plasma membrane Myofibril Z line Light band Light band Dark band Sarcomere Single muscle fiber (cell) Nuclei

47. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.8-3 Z line Light band Light band Dark band Sarcomere Z line Sarcomere Thick filaments (myosin) Thin filaments (actin)

48. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide along thick filaments According to the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction, a sarcomere contracts (shortens) when its thin filaments slide along its thick filaments. Contraction shortens the sarcomere without changing the lengths of the thick and thin filaments. When the muscle is fully contracted, the thin filaments overlap in the middle of the sarcomere.

49. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9a Sarcomere Dark band Contracted sarcomere ZZ Relaxed muscle Contracting muscle Fully contracted muscle

50. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide along thick filaments Myosin heads of the thick filaments bind ATP and extend to high-energy states. Myosin heads then attach to binding sites on the actin molecules and pull the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.

51. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-0 Thick filament Thin filaments Thin filament Thick filament Actin Z line Myosin head (low- energy configuration) 1 2 ATP Myosin head (high- energy configuration) P ADP ATP Myosin head (low-energy configuration) 5 P ADP + New position of Z line 4 Myosin head (pivoting to low-energy configuration) Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere. 3 P ADP Cross-bridge

52. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-1-1 Thick filament Thin filaments Z line

53. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-1-2 Thick filament Thin filaments Z line Thin filament Thick filament Actin Myosin head (low- energy configuration) 1 ATP

54. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-1-3 Thick filament Thin filaments Z line Thin filament Thick filament Actin Myosin head (low- energy configuration) 1 ATP 2 Myosin head (high- energy configuration) P ADP

55. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-2-1 P ADP Cross-bridge 3

56. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-2-2 P ADP Cross-bridge 3 4 ADP + P New position of Z line Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere. Myosin head (pivoting to low-energy configuration)

57. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.9b-2-3 P ADP Cross-bridge 3 4 ADP + P New position of Z line Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere. Myosin head (pivoting to low-energy configuration) 5 Myosin head (low-energy configuration) ATP

58. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction A motor neuron carries an action potential to a muscle cell, releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from its synaptic terminal, and initiates a muscle contraction.

59. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction An action potential in a muscle cell passes along T tubules and into the center of the muscle fiber.

60. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.10a Action potential Mitochondrion Motor neuron axon Synaptic terminal T tubule Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Myofibril Plasma membrane Sarcomere Ca 2+ released from ER

61. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction Calcium ions are released from the endoplasmic reticulum and bind to the regulatory protein troponin, resulting in the movement of tropomyosin away from the myosin-binding sites and allowing contraction to occur.

62. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.10b Myosin-binding sites blocked Myosin-binding sites exposed Actin Tropomyosin Ca 2+ -binding sites Troponin complex Ca 2+ floods the cytosol Myosin-binding site

63. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction When motor neurons stop sending action potentials to the muscle fibers, the ER pumps Ca 2+ back out of the cytosol, binding sites on the actin molecules are again blocked, the sarcomeres stop contracting, and the muscle relaxes.

64. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls. More forceful muscle contractions result when additional motor units are activated.

65. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.10c Spinal cord Motor unit 1 Motor unit 2 Nerve Nuclei Motor neuron cell body Motor neuron axon Synaptic terminals Muscle Muscle fibers (cells) Tendon Bone

66. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.11 CONNECTION: Aerobic respiration supplies most of the energy for exercise Aerobic respiration requires a constant supply of glucose and oxygen and provides most of the ATP used to power muscle movement during exercise. The anaerobic process of lactic acid fermentation can provide ATP faster than aerobic respiration but is less efficient.

67. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 30.11

68. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.12 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Characteristics of muscle fiber affect athletic performance Depending on the pathway they use to generate ATP, muscle fibers can be classified as slow, intermediate, or fast. Most muscles have a combination of fiber types, which can be affected by exercise.

69. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.12 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Characteristics of muscle fiber affect athletic performance The fibers that make up a muscle are not all alike. The contractions of “fast-twitch” fibers are rapid and powerful, but the fibers fatigue quickly. “Slow-twitch” fibers can sustain repeated contractions and are slow to fatigue, but their contractions are less forceful. A third fiber type, which has some characteristics of both slow and fast fibers, is also abundant in human muscle.

70. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 30.12 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Characteristics of muscle fiber affect athletic performance Most of the features associated with fiber type reflect the pathway(s) the fiber preferentially uses to generate ATP from energy-rich molecules. Each muscle typically has a mixture of fiber types, broadly correlated to the action it performs.

71. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 30.12a

72. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 1.Describe the diverse methods of locomotion found among animals and the forces each method must overcome. 2.Describe the three main types of skeletons, their advantages and disadvantages, and provide examples of each. 3.Describe the common features of terrestrial vertebrate skeletons, distinguishing between the axial and appendicular skeletons.

73. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 4.Describe the complex structure of bone, noting the major tissues and their relationship to blood-forming tissues. 5.Explain why bones break and how we can help them heal. 6.Describe three types of joints and provide examples of each. 7.Explain how muscles and the skeleton interact to produce movement.

74. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 8.Explain at the cellular level how a muscle cell contracts. 9.Explain how a motor neuron signals a muscle fiber to contract. 10.Describe the role of calcium in a muscle contraction. 11.Explain how motor units control muscle contraction. 12.Explain what causes muscle fatigue.

75. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 13.Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic exercise, noting the advantages of each. 14.Compare the structure and functions of slow, intermediate, and fast muscle fibers. 15.Explain how a genetic test can help identify activities best suited to an athlete.

76. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 30.UN04 Animal movement gravity and friction must overcome forces of requires both (a)(b) types are move parts of usually in units of contraction are hydrostatic skeleton antagonistic pairs (c)(d) shorten as myosin pulls actin filaments endoskeleton sliding-filament model (e) calledmade of