1. Sociological Methods

2. Scientific Method  Sociologists use the scientific method to study society  Definition – systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem 1. Identify the problem 2. Review the literature 3. Formulate a hypothesis 4. Develop and select the research design 5. Collect data 6. Analyze data 7. State findings and conclusions

3. Identify the Problem Review the Literature Formulate a Hypothesis Develop a Research Design Collect and Analyze Data Findings and Conclusion

4. What are sociological questions?  Empirical versus Normative (value vs. judgment) statements  “Our country has the highest standards of living in the world.” versus “Our country is the best country in the world.”  Questions about the meaning of certain activities, practices, or experiences for particular social groups.  wedding traditions, family/marriage patterns, education  Questions about how identification with larger social categories such as race, religion, political identification, gender, etc. have an affect on social life.

5. What are sociological questions?  Questions about the influence of particular variables on other variables or outcomes.  Does birth order affect social attitudes?  How does co-habitation prior to marriage affect the probability of marital success/stability?  Is low voter turnout explained by the educational levels of the population?  Does the school dress code affect learning?  Is there a correlation between drinking alcohol and smoking marijuana?

6. Sociological Research Methods  Sociologists use a variety of research methods, many of which are not highly controlled.  These research methods do not always occur in laboratory settings.

7. Survey Methods  Interviews: Information gathered through face-to-face, telephone, or online interactive questioning.  pros  high response rate  fewer misunderstandings  insight into feelings and reasons  cons  honesty/personal information  influence of interviewer

8. Survey Methods  Questionnaires – Written list of questions and/or statements that surveys people.  Close-Ended Questions – The person chooses from a predetermined set of questions.  Open-Ended Questions – The person uses their own words.  pros  cheap and easy  large samples  cons  interpretation difficulties  misunderstandings

9. Ethnography / Observation  Ethnography – a sociological method that explores how people live and make sense of their lives with one another in particular places  Observation (watching a group, collecting historical information, conducting in-person interviews)  Detached - researchers watch groups from a distance  Participant - researchers infiltrate groups to observe (anonymous versus known)  Pros  safe  Inexpensive  nuances, details  Cons  Assumptions  missed details  affect outcomes

10. Experiments  Experiment – An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables  Use of experimental and control groups to test hypothesis  Used to study cause-and-effect relationships Causation  Events are predictable and one event leads to another. Things happen for a reason  Multiple Causation – Belief that an event occurs as a result of several factors

11. Use of Existing Sources  Secondary Analysis – a variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data.  Examples of Sources – census data, crime statistics, health statistics, newspapers, web pages, song lyrics, videos, speeches, literature, etc.  Researchers use data in ways that were unintended by the initial collectors of information.

12. Field Research  Research that takes place in a natural setting. Example: Go to a prison and hang out.  Case study over a single group, incident, or community.  Participant Observation: Case study where the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied.

13. Statistical Analysis  The use of mathematical data to analyze the relationship between two variables  Example – poverty and level of education  Pros  easy to collect data  Cons  hard to control variables Historical Analysis  Could include artifacts, documents, records, etc. from the past (existing sources)  documents, newspapers, magazines, laws, letters, videos, toys, pictures, tools

14. Quantitative vs. Qualitative  Quantitative Research – Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form. It can be measured and given a numerical value.  surveys, statistical analysis  Qualitative Research – Research that relies on what is seen in field or in a natural settings more than statistical data. A characteristic that is defined by its presence or absence in a category. (yes, no, etc.)  observation

15. Variable A characteristic that is subject to change.  Independent Variable – A characteristic that causes something to occur.  time spent studying  Dependent Variable – A characteristic that reflects a change.  grade you receive  Intervening Variable – A variable that changes the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable.

16. Correlation  Measure of how two items (variables) are related to each other.  Positive Correlation: Independent and dependent variable move in the same direction. A relationship between two variables where if one variable increases, the other one also increases. Also exists when one decreases and the other also decreases.  Example – grizz and grades.  Negative Correlation: Independent and dependent variable move in opposite directions. A relationship between two variables such that as the value of one variable increases, the other decreases.

17. Ethics of Research  Code of Ethics – The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession  American Sociological Association (ASA) Code of Ethics: 1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research 2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity 3. Protect subjects from personal harm 4. Preserve confidentiality 5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research participants or when behavior occurs in private context 6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance 7. Disclose all sources of financial support