1. 解讀奧林匹克精神 運動家精神與公平競爭 Rules, Cheating, Sportsmanship & Fair Play

2. Learning Outcomes n Identify the link between values, principles and rules n Differentiate between written and unwritten rules n Consider rule keeping & breaking n Analyse conditions for cheating in sport n Evaluate moral aspects of cheating n Analyse the relationship between ‘Sportsmanship’ & ‘Fair Play’

3. Discussion 1. What are good (values) in your life? 2. What are ‘good’/ ‘bad’ sports contests? (moral, immoral & non-moral examples) - (OHP) 3. What is cheating in sports? 4. Can cheating in sport be justified? If yes, why? If not, why not?

4. Rules n Underpinned by values & principles n Written rules - constitutive rules - functional & defining - regulative rules - penalty invoking; etiquette - auxiliary rules - eligibility; doping See handout: Searle (1969), Meier (1985) and Kretchmar (2001)

5. Rules Q- What is it to keep the rules? - tacit agreement between participants (contract) - a moral obligation? I ought to play by the rules...(keep promise - Kant) - or a virtuous person (sportsperson)?

6. Rule keeping & breaking Rule keeping & breaking n Rule keeping = Fair Play? n Formal - keep the written rules - Consider examples of breaking the rules (e.g. Tyson vs Holyfield) n Informal - keep the unwritten rules - Spirits! Ethos! (e.g. Arsenal vs Sheffield) - A. Unintentionally - accidental foul - B. Intentionally - professional foul

7. Cheating in Sport n What is cheating? Provide examples n Violation of rules = Cheating? n Intentional (If you do not intend to break rules - is this cheating?) n Deception (if you do not intend to deceive - is this cheating?) n What of the strategic foul? A good foul? n Penalties - a sanction or a price? B/ball n Is it cheating if...?

8. Concept of Cheating (I) n 3 conditions to cheat (Reddiford) - players seek gains not properly hers/his - conceals real motives i.e. deceives - at time victim of rule violation & official believe all is well - If A cheats B, A deceives B - If A does not deceive B, B is not cheating

9. Concept of Cheating (II) n Definition - necessary conditions 1. Intention 2. Deception 3. In order to gain an unacceptable unfair advantage. 4. BUT: Breaking rules - not necessarily!

10. Concept of Cheating (III) n Cheating make the game more interesting? (Leaman) n Can cheating ever be justified?

11. Concept of Cheating (III) n Focus on external goals - win at all costs - not how game is played (internal goods) but the outcome (external goods - money) n Lack of respect for persons > violation of rules - rules are both functional & moral n Acceptable unfair advantage vs. unacceptable unfair advantage. (Arnold) Examples?

12. Cheating & Rule Formalism (1) Leaman n Role of official enshrines cheating n Official regulates skilfulnes of cheating (2) Lehman n Rules are inseparable from ends - break rules & original end becomes impossible to attain n Cannot win without play, cannot play without rule keeping (rule formalism) Q: Can Cheats Play the Game?

13. Cheating and Deception n Pearson (1988): 1. Strategic Deception (SD) Permissible (basketball, tennis, baseball) (see handout) 2. Definitional Deception (DD) Cheating?

14. Cheating and Rule Breaking Examples: (see handout) (1) water polo (2) swimming marathon

15. Cheating and Deception Summary: 1. ‘Breaking rules with intention’ might not be seen as cheating. (e.g. marathon swimming) (e.g. marathon swimming) 2. Cheating can be achieved ‘without breaking rules’? (e.g. water polo) (e.g. water polo)

16. Cheating and Good Foul Fraleigh (1988): n A player violates the rules whilst expecting and willingly accepting a penalty. => in order to gain an advantage. Example: ? n Q: 1. Is a ‘good foul’ good? 2. Is a ‘good foul’ cheating? 2. Is a ‘good foul’ cheating?

17. Sportsmanship (I) n Sportspersonship or Sportsmanship? - gender awareness n Sportsmanship in Practice: (Beller & Stoll, 1993) 1. Students’ view: no moral character 2. Athletes’ view: for self-interested purposes. 3. Coaches & teachers: hard to define; culture difference.

18. Sportsmanship (II) n Sportsmanship contains a variety of positive values. n Sportsmanship has same things in common with morality. a. refer to ‘character & action’. b. sportsmanlike acts are ethical acts. c. as an important value (moral and non- moral) Q: Sportsmanship = Fair Play?

19. Fair Play (I) The International Fair Play Committee (IFPC, 1976) n a ‘way of behaving’: - honesty - respect for team colleagues - respect for opponents - respect for the referee * BUT: Respect for the game (Butcher & Schneider,1988)

20. Fair Play (II) n “Fair play is embodied in modesty in victory, in graciousness in defeat, and in that generosity of outlook which creates warm and lasting human relationships”. n So: Fair play entails good sportsmanship?

21. Group Project 1. Can cheating ever be justified? 2. Can cheats play the game? 3. Does cheating necessarily entail ‘breaking the rules’? 4. Is ‘strategic deception’ allowed? If not, what is wrong with that? 5. Is a ‘good foul’ good? If not, why? 6. Is a ‘good foul’ cheating? 7. What is the relationship between ‘sportsmanship’ and ‘fair play’?