1. Chapter 6, part-2- Language Learning and Teaching Processes and Young Children

2. Adult Conversation Teaching Technique There is a little direct instructions from the parents. The level of maternal education correlates with children’s language development.

3. Adult Speech to Toddlers Modeling : Motherese (Parentese) Motheres: Unconscious modified style of talking used mostly by mothers when they talk to their toddlers. - Request for restatement - Question after pointing - Asking after vocalization

5. As the child’s language matures, a mother’s speech directed to a child likewise changes. Motherese seem well-tuned to the child’s language level. In other words, mothers input is based primarily on the children’s comprehension level.

6. Adults are not conscious of their modifications, nor are they consciously attempting to teach language. Although the exact nature of child feedback is unknown, children seem to be the key to adult linguistic changes. HOW??? - Adult-to-children speech seem to be modified in response to the amount of child feedback and participation. A lack of response is important for it informs a parent there has been a breakdown in communication, that is in turn requires linguistic changes by the parents.

7. Fathers and other caregivers. The speech modifications are for both mothers and fathers. The amount of vocabulary used by fathers and mothers are the same, yet fathers use fewer common words, so they are more lexically demanding. The modification made by fathers and mothers are the same, fathers are less successful in communication with toddlers as measured by the amount of communication breakdown. Fathers use more requests for clarification than mothers. The form of these requests is more nonspecific “what” than those of mothers “you want what?”.

8. Fathers also acknowledge their children’s utterances less frequently “Um-hm, Yeah, Yes”. As a result, children tend to persist less in conversation with their fathers than with their mothers. The child learn how to communicate with those less familiar with their style and manner. Even children as young as 4 years old make speech modification when they talk to younger children. It is less complex, shorter and contains more repetition.

9. The presence of an old sibling may also influence the language a young child hears and produces. HOW?? - The older child usually responds to the many of the parents questions and hence reduce the number of responses produced by the young child. The young learner often imitates the older sibling and as a result the mother uses fewer rephrased questions.

10. Prompting It is any parental behaviors that require a child response. There are three types of prompting; - Fill in e.g. The parent says : “This is …..” - Elicited imitations e.g. The parent says: “Say X” - Questions (yes/no questions or wh- questions) e.g. the parent says “Is this a ball?”, or “What’s that?”

11. Responding behaviors. Parents do not reinforce syntactic creativeness of the toddlers’ utterances. Parents reinforce truthfulness and politeness.

12. Feedback by parents follow the children’s language production.  If the child produces grammatically correct sentences, parents acknowledge, change the topic, imitate, or don’t response.  If the child produces ungrammatical utterances, parents either; Reformulation Expansions of the child’s utterance Extension

13.  Reformulation Adults recasting of a child utterance that makes it more it more grammatically correct, adds new information or changes the form. The goal is not to teach, but to understand the child. e.g. The child:“Gran’ma car, go zoo, ‘morrow with Nuncle Juan” The parent: “Yes, tomorrow Uncle Juan and you are going to the zoo in grandmother’s car”

14. Expansion Adults mature version of a child utterance that preserves the word order of the original child utterance. e.g. Child: “Doggie eat” Parent: “The doggie is eating”

15. Extension Adult’s semantically related comment on on a topic established by a child. e.g. Child: “Doggie eat” Parent: “Yes, doggie is hungry”