1. Roman portrait sculpture
Roman portrait sculpture. To which period does each of these portraits belong?

4. Portrait of a Roman General found in Tivoli, Italy, ca. 75-50 BCE
Portrait of a Roman General found in Tivoli, Italy, ca BCE. Marble

5. Portrait of a Roman general. Tivoli, ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble

6. Portrait of a Roman general. Tivoli, ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble

8. The Julio-Claudian family tree

9. Roman coin depicting Emperor Claudius with his young successor Nero

10. Roman coin depicting Emperor Claudius with his young successor Nero

11. Nero, Emperor from 54 to 68 CE

12. Nero giving charity to the poor
Nero, Emperor from 54 to 68 CE

13. Nero’s lavish palace (the “Domus Aurea” and its artificial lake), CE by architects Severus and Celer, built after the Great Fire of Rome, which Nero blamed on Christians, resulting in the martyrdom of many Christians, including Peter and Paul.
Nero, Emperor from 54 to 68 CE

14. Nero’s colossal statue stood facing his artificial lake
Nero’s colossal statue stood facing his artificial lake. Its head was reworked after his assassination because of his Damnatio Memoriae.
Shortly after Nero's death in A.D. 68, the Emperor Vespasian added a sun-ray crown and renamed the statue Colossus Solis, after the Roman sun god Sol.

15. Nero’s forced suicide in 68 CE left a power vacuum and a civil war.
General Vespasian was proclaimed Emperor by his troupes in 69 CE at the age of 60.
Emperor [Flavius] Vespasian, CE, who was proclaimed Emperor by his troupes following the forced suicide of Nero.

16. [Flavius] Vespasian, CE, who was proclaimed Emperor by his troupes following the forced suicide of Nero.

17. Flavius Vespasian, CE, who was proclaimed Emperor by his troupes following the forced suicide of Nero.

18. The Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum, CE, was built on top of Nero’s artificial lake and received its nick name from the colossal statue that stood next door.

19. Reconstruction model of the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum, CE, was constructed of marble veneres over concrete.

20. Reconstruction model of the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum, CE, was constructed of marble veneres over concrete.
Pont-du-Gard, near Nimes, France.

21. Pont-du-Gard, near Nimes, France.
The vaulted concrete structure was relatively lightweight and hollow underneath.

22. The vaulted concrete structure was relatively lightweight and hollow underneath.

23. Animation at youtube.com showing the awning of the Flavian Amphitheater, 1:17
The masts supported riggings like those found on sailing ships for suspending an awning called a Velarium.

24. The floor of the Flavian Amphitheater could be removed and the amphitheater filled with water from the nearby aquaducts to create mock navel battles, as depicted in this 18th-century print.
Spectacles were underwritten by prominent families, not by the State. While there is some ancient literary references to Christians being executed in arenas (on the sand or harena), there is no specific mention in ancient literature of Christians being executed in the Flavian Amphitheater.

25. Roman Emperors
Julio-Claudians: Augustus · Tiberius · Caligula · Claudius I · Nero ·
Year of the Four Emperors: Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasian
Flavians: Vespasian · Titus · Domitian 
Antonines: Nerva · Trajan · Hadrian · Antoninus Pius · Marcus Aurelius · Lucius Verus · Commodus ·
Severans: Pertinax · Didius Julianus · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus · Elagabalus · Alexander Severus

26. Augustus, c. 20 BCE
Flavius Vespasian, Emperor from CE

27. Augustus, c. 20 BCE
Flavius Vespasian, Emperor from CE
Hadrian as a young man, c. 117 CE

28. Hadrian adopted the beard of a mature Greek man, rather than a kouros or mature Republican.
Hadrian as a young man, c. 117 CE

29. Hadrian as a young man, c. 117 CE
Hadrian, found in his private Villa, Tivoli, Italy, CE

30. Rome reached its greatest size under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian
Rome reached its greatest size under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Both were born in Spain and spent very little time in the city of Rome.
Hadrian, found in his private Villa, Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, CE

31. Hadrian’s reign saw the reconstruction of the Pantheon in Rome, 118-125 CE
Hadrian, found in his private Villa, Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, CE

32. Review Roman portrait sculpture
Review Roman portrait sculpture. To which period does each of these portraits belong?

33. Review Roman portrait sculpture
Review Roman portrait sculpture. To which period does each of these portraits belong?

34. Portrait of Caracalla, c. 211-217
From Hadrian, found in his private Villa, Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, CE
Portrait of Caracalla, c

35. Caracalla’s parents Julia Domna and Septimius Severus, his brother Geta (erased after he was murdered by Caracalla in 211), and Caracalla, c. 200
Portrait of Caracalla, c , who ruled Rome from Africa

36. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216
Portrait of Caracalla, c

37. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216

38. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216

39. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216

40. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216
Natatio
Baths of Caracalla, Rome,
Reconstruction drawing of the Natatio (swimming pool)

41. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216
Frigidarium
Baths of Caracalla, Rome,
Reconstruction drawing of the Frigidarium

42. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 212-216
Roman copy of Lysippos’s Weary Herakles, found at the Baths of Caracalla

43. Late Roman Empire Portraits
Portrait Bust of the Soldier Emperor Trajan Decius,
Portrait of Caracalla, c

44. Twenty three Soldier Emperors in the 49 years between 235–284:
Maximinus Thrax · Gordian I · Gordian II · Pupienus · Balbinus · Gordian III · Philip the Arab · Trajan Decius · Trebonianus Gallus · Hostilian · Volusianus · Aemilianus · Valerian · Gallienus · Claudius II · Quintillus · Aurelian · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerian
Portrait Bust of the Soldier Emperor Trajan Decius,

45. Portrait Bust of the Soldier Emperor Trajan Decius, 249-251—who persecuted Christians
Portrait of Caracalla, c
Republican Patrician, BCE

46. Heroic Portrait of the Soldier Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, 251-253

47. Heroic Portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, 251-253

48. Heroic Portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, 251-253

49. Heroic Portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, 251-253

51. Trebonianus Gallus,
Diocletian before the formation of the tetrarchy in Diocletian also persecuted Christians for most of his rein, then changed his mind, because he feared that the Christian God might undermine his rule.
Hadrian, found in his private Villa, Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, CE

52. Trebonianus Gallus,
Diocletian before the formation of the tetrarchy in 293.
Portrait of the Tetrarch Diocletian, ruled , after the formation of the tetrarchy in 293.

53. Portrait of the Tetrarch Diocletian, ruled 284-306, after the formation of the tetrarchy in 293
The Tetrarchs, c. 305, Egyptian porphyry, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall

54. The Tetrarchs, c. 305, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall

55. The Tetrarchs, c. 305, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall

56. Entrance to the Doge’s Palace, next to San Marco, Venice
The Tetrarchs, c. 305, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall

57. The Tetrarchs, c. 305, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall
Entrance to the Doge’s Palace, next to San Marco, Venice

58. The Tetrarchs, c. 305, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall

59.  Tetrarchs in  
Augustus Constantius (Gaul) ; Augustus Galerius (Illyricum) Caesar Severus (Italy) Caesar Maximinus (East)
The next year, following Constantius’s death, his son Constantine assumed the title Augustus, and began to eliminate the other three tetrarchs.
The Tetrarchs, c. 305, built into the foundation of San Marco, Venice, 4’ 3” tall

60.
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
Gaul
Constantius *
Constantine
Crispus
Italy
Maximian
Severus
Licinius*
Illyricum
Diocletian
Maximinus
Licinius
East
Galerius
In 312, Constantine defeated Maximinus’s son Maximinus at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, in Rome, and took control of Gaul and Italy. Constantine then shared power with Licinius until they became foes and Constantine defeated Licinius near Byzantium (modern day Istanbul, Turkey) to become sole emperor.

61. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome, 306-312

62. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome, 306-312

63. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome, 306-312

64. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome, 306-312

65. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome, 306-312

66. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome, 306-312

67. Portrait of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome,

68. Diocletian before the formation of the tetrarchy in 293.
Portrait of the Tetrarch Diocletian, ruled , after the formation of the tetrarchy in 293.
Portrait Bust of the Soldier Emperor Trajan Decius,
Portrait of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome,

69. I. Early Christian Era—4th to the 6th centuries
…begins with the Edict of Milan, 313 CE:
“When I, Constantine Augustus, as well as I, Licinius Augustus, fortunately met near Mediolanurn (Milan), and were considering everything that pertained to the public welfare and security, we thought, among other things which we saw would be for the good of many, those regulations pertaining to the reverence of the Divinity ought certainly to be made first, so that we might grant to the Christians and others full authority to observe that religion which each preferred; whence any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens may be propitious and kindly disposed to us and all who are placed under our rule. And thus by this wholesome counsel and most upright provision we thought to arrange that no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, of that religion which he should think best for himself, so that the Supreme Deity, to whose worship we freely yield our hearts may show in all things His usual favor and benevolence. Therefore, your Worship should know that it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever, which were in the prescripts formerly given to you officially, concerning the Christians and now any one of these who wishes to observe Christian religion may do so freely and openly, without molestation….”
Christianity, Judeism and other religions become legal after the co-rulers Constantine (above) and Licinius issue the Edict of Milan in 313 CE.

70. Review Roman portrait sculpture
Review Roman portrait sculpture. To which period does each of these portraits belong?