1. 1 The Big Three of Literary Analysis Diction, Syntax and Imagery

2. 2DICTION Diction Defines Style / Character: Diction Defines Style / Character: Diction is an author’s choice of words modified by his own unique style also called the author’s “voice”. Diction is an author’s choice of words modified by his own unique style also called the author’s “voice”. Like a good closet of clothes, a skillful author selects the appropriate “verbal wardrobe”: Like a good closet of clothes, a skillful author selects the appropriate “verbal wardrobe”: to fit the occasion or situation to fit the occasion or situation to reach his audience to reach his audience to achieve his purpose. to achieve his purpose.

3. 3DICTION Some writers, like John Steinbeck in The Grapes of Wrath and Cannery Row, use a very wide range of diction to make their characters distinctive. Some writers, like John Steinbeck in The Grapes of Wrath and Cannery Row, use a very wide range of diction to make their characters distinctive. For instance, the used car salesman speaks in repeated clichés and slang such as, “It’s a real bargain”, or “The deal’s a steal”; For instance, the used car salesman speaks in repeated clichés and slang such as, “It’s a real bargain”, or “The deal’s a steal”; Some characters speak in more formal language when they are repeating the edict from the bank, “You must vacate the premises immediately”. Some characters speak in more formal language when they are repeating the edict from the bank, “You must vacate the premises immediately”. Other characters speak in colloquial language showing their lack of “proper” education. “Shucks”, pa, “Ain’t no use fightin’ ‘em…”. Many authors use various sorts of diction to distinguish their characters one from the other. Other characters speak in colloquial language showing their lack of “proper” education. “Shucks”, pa, “Ain’t no use fightin’ ‘em…”. Many authors use various sorts of diction to distinguish their characters one from the other.

4. 4 DICTION Type of Diction AudiencePurposeExample Sophisticated Highly educated or refined To impress The meal was exquisite Formal Strangers, notables; professional To show good manners My stomach is full Informal Friends and Colleagues To share feelings My belly is stuffed with food Colloquial Family and close friends To share feelings without pretense That there finger lickin’ grub stuffed my gut. Slang Close friends To be cool and “in” That belly- buster filled me up.

5. 5DICTION Denotation and Connotation are Cultural Nuances of Diction: Denotation and Connotation are Cultural Nuances of Diction: In analysis, the dictionary definition of the word “birthday” is simply the day one is born, or the annual celebration of the date of birth. We call the dictionary definition, “denotation”. In analysis, the dictionary definition of the word “birthday” is simply the day one is born, or the annual celebration of the date of birth. We call the dictionary definition, “denotation”. Authors, and especially poets, use “loaded words” we call “connotation” that are packed with extra meaning from their cultural experience. Authors, and especially poets, use “loaded words” we call “connotation” that are packed with extra meaning from their cultural experience. For instance, what American 16 year-old doesn’t know that “birthday” means driver’s license, and if he is lucky, maybe even a car. For instance, what American 16 year-old doesn’t know that “birthday” means driver’s license, and if he is lucky, maybe even a car. But those definitions are NOT to be found in the denotation of the word, “birthday”. But those definitions are NOT to be found in the denotation of the word, “birthday”.

6. 6SYNTAX Syntax Defines Style Through Variety of Sentence Structure: Syntax Defines Style Through Variety of Sentence Structure: Syntax refers to sentence structure and the variation of phrases and clauses within, which the author manipulates: Syntax refers to sentence structure and the variation of phrases and clauses within, which the author manipulates: to fit the occasion or situation to fit the occasion or situation to reach his audience to reach his audience to achieve his purpose. to achieve his purpose.

7. 7SYNTAX A Sentence is a Clause: A Sentence is a Clause: All clauses have a subject (S), a verb (V), and sometimes a direct object (DO) and an indirect object (IO). All clauses have a subject (S), a verb (V), and sometimes a direct object (DO) and an indirect object (IO). A sentence with only one subject (S) + verb (V) combination is called a simple sentence. Adding phrases to a simple sentence can make it very long, but it is still simple. A sentence with only one subject (S) + verb (V) combination is called a simple sentence. Adding phrases to a simple sentence can make it very long, but it is still simple. Sometimes a sentence has two or more clauses (S+V) + (S+V), joined by a coordinating conjunction such as: and, but, or, and the result is a compound sentence. Sometimes a sentence has two or more clauses (S+V) + (S+V), joined by a coordinating conjunction such as: and, but, or, and the result is a compound sentence.

8. 8 SYNTAX Sometimes, long sentences are complex, with two or more subject- verb-object combinations (S+V) + (S+V) joined by a subordinating conjunction such as: however, although, which, that, nonetheless, and many of the personal pronouns that can sometimes be used as subordinating conjunctions. Sometimes, long sentences are complex, with two or more subject- verb-object combinations (S+V) + (S+V) joined by a subordinating conjunction such as: however, although, which, that, nonetheless, and many of the personal pronouns that can sometimes be used as subordinating conjunctions. So the terms, simple, compound and complex refer to the type of sentence structure used by the author. So the terms, simple, compound and complex refer to the type of sentence structure used by the author.

9. 9SYNTAX Another way to distinguish sentences is by their function: declarative, interrogatory, exclamatory or imperative. Their end punctuation provides the biggest clue to the sentence type. Another way to distinguish sentences is by their function: declarative, interrogatory, exclamatory or imperative. Their end punctuation provides the biggest clue to the sentence type. The declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period (.). The interrogative sentence ends with a question mark (?), and the exclamatory sentence ends with and exclamation point (!). The declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period (.). The interrogative sentence ends with a question mark (?), and the exclamatory sentence ends with and exclamation point (!). The imperative sentence ends with a period (.), but it is distinguished because it starts with a verb and the subject is understood. The imperative sentence ends with a period (.), but it is distinguished because it starts with a verb and the subject is understood. The imperative is easiest to remember by associating it with authority figures giving orders: “Clean up”, “Be quiet”, “Sit down”. The imperative is easiest to remember by associating it with authority figures giving orders: “Clean up”, “Be quiet”, “Sit down”.

10. 10SYNTAX Phrases do NOT have a Subject and a Verb: Phrases do NOT have a Subject and a Verb: Phrases are important to enrich the detail of the sentence. Their function is to describe or modify either the subject or the verb, or to replace a noun. Phrases are important to enrich the detail of the sentence. Their function is to describe or modify either the subject or the verb, or to replace a noun. Prepositional phrases add description and work like adjectives modifying nouns or adverbs modifying verbs. For instance, the prepositional phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The road (to school) ended.” or as an adverb, “The road ended (beyond the bridge).” Prepositional phrases add description and work like adjectives modifying nouns or adverbs modifying verbs. For instance, the prepositional phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The road (to school) ended.” or as an adverb, “The road ended (beyond the bridge).” Appositive phrases are set off by commas and simply restate the noun such as: Bob, my friend, lives next door. Appositive phrases are set off by commas and simply restate the noun such as: Bob, my friend, lives next door. The Verbal phrases are actually verb words with the “en” “ing” or “ed” ending working as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are: participles, gerunds and infinitives. The Verbal phrases are actually verb words with the “en” “ing” or “ed” ending working as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are: participles, gerunds and infinitives.

11. 11SYNTAX Participles do the work of adjectives (to modify nouns or pronouns) or adverbs (to modify verbs). For example the participle phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The speeding car crashed.”, or as an adverb in, “The car crashed speedily.” Participles do the work of adjectives (to modify nouns or pronouns) or adverbs (to modify verbs). For example the participle phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The speeding car crashed.”, or as an adverb in, “The car crashed speedily.” Gerunds are verb forms that replace nouns or pronouns as in, “Running is my best sport.” Gerunds are verb forms that replace nouns or pronouns as in, “Running is my best sport.” Infinitives always start with the word, “to” and end with a verb, as in “to work”. They replace nouns or pronouns as either the subject or object of a sentence; as adverbs that modify verbs, or as adjectives that modify nouns. Infinitives are easy to spot because “to” followed by a noun in the prepositional phase (to + noun) is very different than the “to” followed by a verb of the infinitive phrase (to + verb). Infinitives always start with the word, “to” and end with a verb, as in “to work”. They replace nouns or pronouns as either the subject or object of a sentence; as adverbs that modify verbs, or as adjectives that modify nouns. Infinitives are easy to spot because “to” followed by a noun in the prepositional phase (to + noun) is very different than the “to” followed by a verb of the infinitive phrase (to + verb).

12. 12 Syntax Sentences = Clauses: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Indirect Object Must have, unless sentence is a command Must have Optional Must first have a direct object Sentence Types Simple = One S+V Compound = Two equal S+V’s joined by and, but or yet Complex = One main S+V and one or more subordinate S+V Compound/ Complex = Two equal S+V’s, + one or more subordinate SV Sentence Patterns Declarative = makes a statement Interrogative = asks a question Exclamatory = makes a strong or sudden statement Imperative = a command with a verb and “you” understood Sentence Length Periodic – less common with S+V last Cumulative – more common with S+V first Phrases: No Subject No Verb Phrase Types Prepositions – work as adjectives or adverbs Appositives – work as a repeat or clarification of a noun Verbals – verb words that work as nouns, adjects or adverbs Types of Verbal Phrases Participles – verb words ending in “en”, “ed” or “ing” that work as adverbs or adjectives Infinitives – verb words with “to” in front that work as nouns adjectives or adverbs Gerunds – verb words ending in “ed” or “ing” that work as nouns

13. 13SYNTAX Syntax also includes the author’s variations of sentence components as an element of style used to emphasize his message. Syntax also includes the author’s variations of sentence components as an element of style used to emphasize his message. Some common variations of emphasis are: Some common variations of emphasis are: word order (inversion) word order (inversion) juxtaposition of opposites (oxymoron) juxtaposition of opposites (oxymoron) repetition of words, phrases or clauses repetition of words, phrases or clauses rhetorical questions to explore ideas (not expecting and answer) rhetorical questions to explore ideas (not expecting and answer) variations of punctuation variations of punctuation The careful reader will spot them easily. The careful reader will spot them easily.

14. 14SYNTAX Synatx variations Examples of syntax variations for emphasis Inversion Carried (V), she (S) was, by others in her study group. The verb of the sentence is placed before the subject. Juxtaposition Do not weep, maiden, for war is kind. The italicized words are opposite in meaning giving a sudden contrast of ideas that signals something is wrong. Repetition I have a dream that all men are equal; I have a dream that my sons can aspire to the highest positions; I have a dream… is a clause that is repeated 17 times in the famous Martin Luther King speech for dramatic effect. Rhetorical Question Shall we not rise up and be counted, make our cause be known? If we do not, we are fool-hardy in that choice. A question posed, and then answered. The function is to prod the listener to thought. Parallel Structure Marlene enjoyed the outdoor sports of skiing, hiking and riding horses, but much preferred the indoor sport of ice-skating. Items or ideas in a series must appear in the same grammatical form. Punctuation I heard a fly buzz when I died – He landed – Where I could not see to see. Here, the dash is used to signal an extended pause for dramatic effect.

15. 15IMAGERY Imagery refers to words that appeal to the five senses: sight, sound, taste, feel, smell; or create a mental picture for the reader. Imagery refers to words that appeal to the five senses: sight, sound, taste, feel, smell; or create a mental picture for the reader. The figurative language of imagery also includes simile (“like” or “as” comparisons) and metaphor (direct comparisons with “is”). The figurative language of imagery also includes simile (“like” or “as” comparisons) and metaphor (direct comparisons with “is”).

16. 16IMAGERY Imagery is Description and a Function of Style: Imagery is Description and a Function of Style: All great writers paint “word pictures” with their descriptive imagery. They show us about settings and characters rather than tell us. All great writers paint “word pictures” with their descriptive imagery. They show us about settings and characters rather than tell us. Many authors are especially notable for their skill at complex and detailed imagery such as the non-fiction essay writer, Annie Dillard, author of A Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, and fiction writer, F. Scott Fitzgerald Many authors are especially notable for their skill at complex and detailed imagery such as the non-fiction essay writer, Annie Dillard, author of A Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, and fiction writer, F. Scott Fitzgerald Dillard describes the gory detail of a praying mantis chewing the innards out of a live wasp at the same time that he (the wasp) was squeezing a honey bee to death to lick her disgorged honey. Dillard describes the gory detail of a praying mantis chewing the innards out of a live wasp at the same time that he (the wasp) was squeezing a honey bee to death to lick her disgorged honey.

17. 17IMAGERY “He [J. Henry Fabre] describes a bee-eating wasp, the Philanthus, who has killed a honey- bee. “He [J. Henry Fabre] describes a bee-eating wasp, the Philanthus, who has killed a honey- bee. If the bee is heavy with honey, the wasp squeezes its crop ‘so as to make her disgorge the delicious syrup, which she drinks by licking the tongue which her unfortunate victim, in her death agony, sticks out of her mouth at full length….(visual) (gustatory) (tactile) If the bee is heavy with honey, the wasp squeezes its crop ‘so as to make her disgorge the delicious syrup, which she drinks by licking the tongue which her unfortunate victim, in her death agony, sticks out of her mouth at full length….(visual) (gustatory) (tactile) At the moment of some such horrible banquet, I have seen the Wasp, with her prey, seized by the Mantis: the bandit was rifled by another bandit. At the moment of some such horrible banquet, I have seen the Wasp, with her prey, seized by the Mantis: the bandit was rifled by another bandit. And here is an awful detail: while the Mantis held her transfixed under the points of the double saw and was already munching her belly, the Wasp continued to lick the honey of her Bee, unable to relinquish the delicious food even amid the terrors of death. And here is an awful detail: while the Mantis held her transfixed under the points of the double saw and was already munching her belly, the Wasp continued to lick the honey of her Bee, unable to relinquish the delicious food even amid the terrors of death. Let us hasten to cast a veil over these horrors.’” Let us hasten to cast a veil over these horrors.’”

18. 18IMAGERYImagery Figurative language Visual words: red, blue, all colors, shapely, ugly, pretty, handsome, tall, short, barren, wooded Simile: She is nothing like the Sun… Auditory words: (onomatopoeia) cracked, clang, snap, loud, whisper, discordant, harmonious, cacophony, blare, trumpet, melodious, raspy, croaking Her eyes were as big as saucers when she saw the horror movie. Gustatory words: delicious, sweet, sour, tart, tangy, scrumptious, hot, cold, spicy, creamy, warm, crunchy Metaphor: The window darkened upon my soul and none could discern me hiding within. Tactile words: soft, scratchy, silky, rough, hard, dented, knobby, satiny, weathered, pliable, flexible There are many, many variations of metaphors, but all function as direct comparisons. Olfactory words: stinky, perfumed, odorous, reeking, stench, putrid, steamy, sweaty, pungent