1. Chapter 7: Cognitive Aspects of Personality
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2. Roots in Gestalt Psychology
Human beings seek meaning in their environments
We organize the sensations we receive into meaningful perceptions
Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum of their parts
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3. Gestalt Psychology A Gestalt perceptual figure
Is the triangle shown in the image or constructed in the mind of the viewer?
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4. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
Life space
All internal and external forces, and their relationships to one another
e.g., family, religion, work, etc.
Contemporaneous causation
Behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence by all the forces acting at that moment
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5. Field Dependence Rod-and-Frame Test Field dependent Field independent
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6. Field Dependence Children’s play preference Socialization patterns
Field independent children favor solitary play
Socialization patterns
Field independent people emphasize autonomy over conformity
Career choice
Field independent people prefer technological occupations
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7. Field Dependence Interpersonal distance Eye contact
Field independent people tend to sit farther away from a conversational partner
Eye contact
Field independent people make less frequent and less prolonged eye contact with a conversational partner
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8. Schema Theory Schema Script
A cognitive structure that organizes knowledge and expectations about one’s environment
Determines how we think and act
Script
Schemas for familiar events
e.g., eating at a restaurant
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9. Categorization
We tend to organize events, objects, and people into categories
Positive effects of categorization
Quickly understand complex information
Make likely inferences about new things
Negative effects of categorization
Stereotypes
Overlook individuating characteristics
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10. Control of Attention
We notice salient environmental features and combine these with our current goals to decide where to direct our attention
Individual differences in attention
e.g., attention-deficit disorder
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11. George Kelly Personal Construct Theory
People actively endeavor to understand the world and construct their own theories about human behavior
“Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist” — Kelly
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12. Kelly: The Role Construct Repertory Test
Assesses personal construct systems
Think of:
A teacher you liked
Your boss
A successful person you know
Which two are similar? How?
Who is different? How?
Over many triads, the test-taker’s constructs emerge
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13. Social Intelligence
Knowledge and skills relevant to interpersonal situations
Including: empathy, compassion, humor, etc.
Emotional intelligence
Emotion knowledge
Similar to Howard Gardner’s “multiple intelligences” theory
Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
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14. Explanatory Style A characteristic way of interpreting life events
Optimism and Pessimism
Optimistic style is generally associated with better outcomes
Implications for achievement
Learned Helplessness (Seligman)
Repeated exposure to unavoidable punishment leads to the acceptance of avoidable punishment
Cognitive intervention can reduce the depressive effect of pessimism
Learned Optimism
New ways of thinking can be trained
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15. Julian Rotter
Behavior depends upon outcome expectancy and reinforcement value
Outcome expectancy
Person’s expectation that his or her behavior will be reinforced
Reinforcement value
Value of the expected reinforcer to the individual
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16. Julian Rotter Behavior potential Generalized vs. specific expectancies
Likelihood that a behavior will be performed in a particular situation
Generalized vs. specific expectancies
Generalized expectancies apply to categories of behaviors and situations
Specific expectancies apply to particular instances of behaviors and situations
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17. Julian Rotter Six psychological needs Secondary reinforcers
Recognition-status
Dominance
Independence
Protection-dependency
Love and affection
Physical comfort
Secondary reinforcers
Associated with satisfaction of these needs
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18. Julian Rotter Locus of control Internal locus of control
Beliefs about one’s ability to affect outcomes
Stable individual difference
Internal locus of control
Outcomes are the result of one’s own actions
More achievement-oriented
External locus of control
Believe events are beyond their personal control
Includes components of chance and powerful others
More likely to suffer stress and depression
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19. Albert Bandura Self-system
The set of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own behavior so it’s functionally efficient and appropriate
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20. Albert Bandura
How can new behaviors be acquired in the absence of reinforcement?
Observational Learning
Vicarious learning and modeling
Learning Aggressive Behavior
Bobo doll experiments
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21. Albert Bandura Factors that influence modeling: Outcome expectancy
People are more likely to imitate behaviors that they believe lead to positive outcomes
Characteristics of the model
Age, gender, status, competence, etc.
Characteristics of the behavior
Simple and salient behaviors
Attributes of the observer
Self-esteem, dependence, cognitive development
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22. Albert Bandura Processes underlying observational learning Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
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23. Albert Bandura Self-efficacy Self-efficacy determines:
A belief abut how competently one will be able to enact a behavior in a particular situation
Self-efficacy determines:
If we even try to act
How long we persist in our behavior
How success or failure affects future behavior
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24. Albert Bandura Self-efficacy is based on:
Past success and failures at similar tasks
Vicarious experiences (seeing others)
Verbal persuasion (by others)
Emotional reactions (how we feel about the behavior)
Self-efficacy is specific to the situation/behavior
Unlike self-esteem, which is global
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25. Albert Bandura Self-regulation
People’s control over their own achievements
Setting goals for themselves
Evaluating their success
Rewarding themselves
Includes self-efficacy and schemas
Focuses on internal control of behavior
Intrapersonal approach
Close to social psychological approaches
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26. Albert Bandura
Failure of Self-regulation: Breakdown of the self-system
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27. Humans as Computers People as information processors
Similar to how computers manipulate information
Shortcomings of artificial intelligence
Turing Test
Personality is difficult to simulate
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28. Timeline: Cognitive Approach
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29. Timeline: Cognitive Approach
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30. Timeline: Cognitive Approach
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31. Timeline: Cognitive Approach
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32. Timeline: Cognitive Approach
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33. Cognitive Approach Analogy
Humans as scientists and information processors
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34. Cognitive Approach Advantages
Explains personality through uniquely human processes of cognition
Captures active nature of human thought
Differences in cognitive skills are viewed as central to individuality
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35. Cognitive Approach Limits
Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of personality
Some theories tend to oversimplify complex thought processes
May underemphasize situational influences on behavior
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36. Cognitive Approach View of free will
Free will through active human thought processes
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37. Cognitive Approach Common assessment techniques
Decision tasks, biographical analysis, attributional analyses, study of cognitive development, observation
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38. Cognitive Approach Implications for therapy
Uses understanding of perception, cognition, and attribution to change thought processes
Emotion and behavior can be changed by changing cognitions
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