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This Unit Ethnocentrism Nature-nurture
Individual and situational explanations Determinism and free will Reductionism and holism Psychology as a science The usefulness of psychological research
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Nature-Nurture Issues and Debates
This powerpoint has been adapted from Garnette Watts and Terri-linzi King’s work.
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Learning intentions Outline the nature and nurture debate in Psychology. Describe two pieces of research that support nature. Describe two pieces of research that support nurture. Discuss the strengths and limitations of nature and nurture in research. Discuss the strengths and limitations of the nature-nurture debate in research. Explain how the nature and nurture debate is useful to everyday life. (individuals and society).
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Which side of the fence? Nature Nurture
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Nature Behaviour is caused by innate (animal instincts) characteristics : The physiological/biological characteristics we are born with. Behaviour is therefore determined by biology. Determinist view- suggests all behaviour is determined by hereditary factors: Inherited characteristics, or genetic make-up we are born with. The nature side of the debate suggests behaviour is cause by characteristics we are born with- the innate characterisitcs, which are usually physiological or biological. People behave the way they do because they are animals who act in accordance with their animal instincts (innate characteristics) and are determined by their biology. These characteristics are inherited from our ancestors, and form our genetic makeup
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Nature All possible behaviours are said to be present from conception.
Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviours; some present from birth, others pre-programmed to emerge with age. The nature argument suggests that our genes pre-programmed all our behaviours. All possible behaviours are present from conception however whilst some are expressed from birth others are pre-programmed to emerge as we mature. The nature side of the debate is therefore a developmental approach, behaviour change is caused by age and maturation.
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Nurture An individuals behaviour is determined by the environment- the things people teach them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in. Also a determinist view- proposes all human behaviour is the result of interactions with the environment. On the other hand, the nature side of the debate suggests that people behave the way they do because they are determined by the things other people teach them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in. Like the nature side, the nurture side is also a determinist view as it proposes all human behaviour is the result of interactions with the environment.
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Nurture Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental interaction. No limit to what they can achieve: -Depends on quality of external influences and NOT genes. The quality of the environment is KEY: -You can become anything provided the environment is right.
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Watson (behaviourism)
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors
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Nature - Nurture Interaction
Behaviour is often a result of the interaction between nature AND nurture. An individuals characteristics may elicit particular responses in other people e.g. Temperament: how active, responsive or emotional an infant is influences in part determines their caregivers responses. Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due to expectations of masculine and feminine characteristics. Aggression: Displaying aggressive behaviour create particular responses from other people. It is more often accepted that behaviour is a result of the interaction between nature and nurture, or biology and the environment. One view is that people may construct or contribute to their own environments. For example, an individual’s characteristics (which may be innate) such as temperament, gender, or level of aggression, may ellicit particular responses from other people, which may in turn influence the individual’s behaviour. Others take a view which states that an individuals genes are seen as setting upper and lower limits for their potential behaviour. Where within these limits an individual’s behaviour falls may be determined by the environment.
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Why these concepts? Nature Nurture
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The perspectives? Nature Nurture
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Individual Differences
Developmental Psychology Social Psychology Individual Differences
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Evidence for nature and nurture
Questions Personality Language Acquisition
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Personality- The Jim Twins
Unlike most identical twins, Jim Springer and Jim Lewis share a first name instead of a last. The two were separated at birth and adopted by separate families who, by coincidence, named their respective sons James. Both were adopted by families living in Ohio and grew up within 45 miles of each other. Both had childhood dogs they named “Toy.” Both were married twice — first to women named Linda, and then to women named Betty. Both had boys one called his James Allan and the other James Alan. They both smoked the same cigarettes. Both bit their nails and suffered from migraines. Both Jims enjoyed leaving love letters to their wives around the home. Both had been employed as a Sheriff at one point in their life.
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3 characteristics to describe you in relation to your siblings?
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Firstborn Middle Child Last Born Only Children Reliable Conscientious Structured Cautious Controlling Achievers People-pleasers Somewhat rebellious Thrives on friendships Has large social circle Peacemaker Fun-loving Uncomplicated Manipulative Outgoing Attention-seeker Self-centered Mature for their age Perfectionists Diligent Leaders
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Language Acquisition https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA
45 seconds 4 minutes 10minutes Genie the wild child
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Evidence for Nature Nurture Questions Personality Language Acquisition
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Describe two pieces of evidence to explain the nurture/nature debate (8 marks)
Now describe TWO studies that link with the ‘nurture/nature approach’ to explaining behaviour. Remember you want to try and bring in the aim, method, results and conclusions about the study but ALSO explain HOW it is linked to the nature-nurture approach at all times (look back to the key points of the assumptions). What perspectives would be appropriate to use?
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Studies Nature Nurture Interactionist (Question Slide 20) AS (1)
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Support for Nature Physiological Approach:
MAGUIRE, E. A., GADIAN, D. G., JOHNSRUDE, I. S., GOOD, C. D., ASHBURNER, J., FRACKOWIAK, R.S. & FRITH, C. D. (2000) Navigation-related structural changes in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA –4403 DEMENT, W. & KLEITMAN, N. (1957) The relation of eye movements during sleep to dream activity. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 53 (5). 339–346 SPERRY, R. (1968) Hemisphere deconnection and unity in consciousness. American Psychologist –733
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Support for Nature Language Acquisition (Chomsky, 1968) - Chomsky maintained language is the result of innate cognitive structures in the mind. - Biologically based inborn brain mechanism -Children are predisposed to make sounds and understand grammar. - This does not happen from birth but language skills develop rapidly after a certain period of time Language acquisition follows the same sequence in all children= an inbuilt genetic mechanism is responsible. Developmental approach example
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Support for Nature Identical genes exist in Identical Twins- Monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of their genes. Fraternal Twins- Dyzygotic Twins (DZ), share 50% of their genes. Genetic effects can therefore be shown when the correlations within each group is compared with the correlations between each group. This can be added to the correlations found with other relatives. Parents share 50% of genes, cousins share 12.5%. Twin and adoption studies are used to show how much of a behaviour or trait is due to genetics or due to the environment. Identical twins have identical twins- this means they share 100% of their genes, where as non-identical fraternal twins share only half of their genes- 50%. Genetic effects can therefore be shown when the correlations within each group is compared with the correlations between each group. This can be added to the correlations found with other relatives as parents share 50% of their genes, siblings share 25%, and cousins share 12.5%. Adoptive children are included in analysis to help separate the effects of growing up in shared environments. Adopted children’s similarity to their biological parents reflects genetic similarity and eliminates environmental factors. Adopted children with adopted parent similarity reflects environmental similarity and eliminates genetic similarity. Variations between identical twins must be the consequences of the shared environmental influences.
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Support for Nature Genetic basis of Schizophrenia (Gottesman & Shields, 1976) - A review of twin and adoption studies into schizophrenia between 1967 and In adoption studies: compared biological parents and siblings and adoptive parents and siblings. - In twin studies: compared concordance rates (how often both twins were diagnosed with schizophrenia) for monozygotic (identical) and dyzygotic (non- identical) twins. In order to determine whether schizophrenia, a serious mental illness has a genetic link, Gottesman and shields carried out a compreshensive review of twin and adoption studies. The concordance rates – how often both twins were diagnosed with schizophrenia was compared for monozygotic- identical, and dyzgotic- non-identical twins. In adoption studies, biological parents and siblings and adoptive parents and siblings were compared to separate out the contribution of genetics and environment on the development of the disorder. Video
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Support for Nature Results
- Adoption studies found increased incidence of schizophrenia in adopted children with a schizophrenic biological parent. - ‘Normal’ children fostered to a schizophrenic parent and adoptive parents of schizophrenic children showed little evidence of schizophrenia. - Twin studies found higher concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ twins (58%) than DZ twins (12%). Conclusion Significant genetic input into the onset of schizophrenia. Genes responsible for predisposing a person to schizophrenia. All adoption studies found an increased incidence of schizophrenia in adopted children with a schizophrenic biological parent, whereas normal children fostered to schizophrenic parents and adoptive parents of schizophrenic children showed little evidence of schizophrenia. Twin studies found a higher concordance rate for schizophrenia in monozygotic- or identical twins, than dyzygotic- or non-identical twins. Significantly there was a concordance rate of 58% in monozygotic twins which means that if one twin had schizophrenia there was a 58% chance the other would have it, compared against a 12% chance in non-identical dyzgotic twins. Both these comparisons indicate that there is a significant genetic input into the onset of schizophrenia, but with concordance rates less than 100% there must be some interaction with the environment. Certain genes appear to predispose a person to schizophrenia. (Rosenthal, 1963) Genain quadruplets
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Support for Nature IQ scores
-Plomin (1988) studied MZ and DZ twins reared together and apart and found that I.Q. has an overall heritability of genetics are responsible for about 68% of the variation in I.Q. -MZ twins reared apart have I.Q. scores which correlate at about 0.74, or 74%. Evaluation point However, variations between identical twins must be due to environmental influences. Twin studies have also been used to show the heritability of IQ. Plomin found that when the IQ scores of identical and non-identical twins living both together or apart were studied the overall heritability of IQ was about 0.68, or another way, 68% of IQ was due to genetic influences. When only identical twins who were raised apart were studied the correlation increased to 0.74, meaning twins who share 100% of their DNA but grow up in different environments still have IQ scores that are 74% similar- the genetic influence is greater than the environmental influence. Whilst genetics seem to be the biggest influence on IQ the environment must also have an influence, in identical twins 26% of the difference in scores must be due to environmental factors
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Support for Nurture Social Psychology Behaviourist Perspective
MILGRAM, S. (1963) Behavioural study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology –378 REICHER, S. & HASLAM, S. A. (2006) Rethinking the psychology of tyranny. The BBC prison study. PILIAVIN, I., RODIN, J. & PILIAVIN, J. (1969) Good Samaritanism; an underground phenomenon? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 13(4). 289–299 Behaviourist Perspective
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Support for Nurture – Little Albert
Classical conditioning of fear- phobia acquisition: ‘Little Albert’ Aged 11 months (Watson & Raynor, 1920) Before conditioning: Little Albert showed no sign of fear response in any situation. During conditioning: Albert was presented with a rat. Each time he reached for the rat a steel bar was hit. 1st time= he jumped + fell forward 2nd time= he began to whimper The pairing/association process was completed a number of times. After conditioning: Albert reacted to the rat alone by immediately crying, turning, and crawling away quickly. On the side of nurture, it is argued that behaviour can be a result of exposure to certain situations and environments. A case study on one child ‘Little Albert’, under controlled laboratory conditions was carried out to see if it is possible to induce a fear of a previously unfeared object through classical conditioning. Before the experiment little albert showed no fear response to any objects including a white rat. In the first session, when aged 11 months, little albert was presented with a rat, but each time he reached for it a steel bar was hit. The 1st time this happened he jumped and fell forward, the 2nd time he began to cry. In session 2, after 5 rat-bar presentations, Albert reacted to the rat alone by immediately crying, leaning and crawling away quickly.
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Support for Nurture After conditioning: Stimulus Generalisation: Albert returned to see if the fear had transferred. - Presentation of toy blocks (neutral stimulus) = playing - Presentation of the rat followed by a rabbit, dog, fur-coat, Watson’s hair and a Santa Claus = conditioned responses of crying, moving away from stimulus and crawling. Ethics: Little Albert’s mother was not given full informed consent, she also removed Albert from the study before debriefing offered. In session 3 Albert was tested to see if the fear had been transferred to other previously unfeared, but similar looking objects. When give toy blocks Albert played happily, however when the rat was presented and was immediately followed by either a rabbit, a dog, a fur-coat, Watson’s hair, or a santa clause beard Albert showed negative responses of crying and moving away from the stimulus. Session 4 tool this future, and presented the new similar stimuli paired with the steel bar, as originally done with the rat. Albert showed a definite pronounced fear response to all. One month later Albert was brought back to see if the fear response had subsided, but albert continued to show fear reactions to all similar stimuli. Transference of the fear had been made to similar objects. Albert unfortunately was never returned to be desensitised to the objects!
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Support for Nurture Conclusion
- After 5 paired presentations the conditioning of fear was evident: is possible to condition fear through classical conditioning. - The fear had been generalised to other similar objects. - The fear had not been removed with time, nor was he debriefed. Provides evidence that the environment can be manipulated to create a phobic response & behavioural change. (See key study: A2 OCR textbook p.115)
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Support for Nurture- Zimbardo
Zimbardo (1973) Stanford Prison Experiment - 24 participants, described as “normal, healthy male college students, predominantly middle class and white”. - Randomly assigned to the role of ‘prisoner’ or ‘guard’ . - A simulated prison was built in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford University. It comprised of 3 small cells each housing 3 men ,and 1 small unlit room for solitary confinement. Video
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Support for Nurture Guards not told how to behave but were explicitly told that they were not allowed to use physical punishment or physical aggression. Uniforms of both groups were intended to increase group identity and reduce individuality. Guards’ uniforms were intended to convey a military attitude, with a baton and whistle for symbols of control and power.
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Support for Nurture The behaviour of the ‘normal’ students was affected by the assigned role- seemed to believe in their allocated position. Guards became verbally and physically aggressive. Prisoners became increasingly depersonalised- several experienced extreme depression, crying, rage and acute anxiety. The experiment had to be stopped after just six days instead of the planned 14 days. The study demonstrates the powerful effect roles can have on peoples’ behaviour. The behaviour of the apparenly normal students was affected the roles they were assigned to, they appeared to believe in and take on their newly allocated positions. The guards became more and more verbally and physically aggressive towards the prisoners, whilst the prisoners became increasingly depersonalised and deindividuated- several showed signs of extreme depression, with crying, rage and acute anxiety. Because of the extreme, unanticipated reactions, the experiment had to be cut short after only 6 days, instead of the planned 14 days.
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Nature and Nurture Debate Interactionist
Cognitive Psychology Psychodynamic perspective Developmental Psychology Individual Differences
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Nature and Nurture Interaction Evidence
Rutter and Rutter (1993) Aggression hostility - Described how aggressive children think and behave in ways that lead other children to respond to them in a hostile manner. -This then reinforces the antisocial child’s view of the world. Thus, aggressive children tend to experience aggressive environments partly because they elicit aggressive responses. Rutter and Rutter thought that it was too simplistic to just say that children are either born aggressive or learn aggression, and instead suggested that children pay exhibit aggressive characteristics which in turn causes people around them to respond in a hostile or aggressive manner. This aggressive response then acts to reinforce the child’s aggressive behaviour, beliefs and tendencies. They suggest that aggressive children tend to experience aggressive environments partly because they elicit aggressive responses in others.
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Nature - Nurture Interaction
Maguire et al. (2000)- Taxi driver study - Structural MRI scans of the brains of licensed London taxi drivers were compared with controls who did not drive taxis. - Hippocampal volume correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver - The posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were significantly larger relative to those of control subjects. - The posterior hippocampus stores a spatial representation of the environment and can expand regionally in people with a high dependence on navigational skills. Whilst some behaviours can be traced to physiology research does indicate that the environment can create brain changes. Research by Maguire et al. Found that the structure of the hippocampus in the brains of taxi drivers change as a result of their environment- which suggests than an interaction between nature and nurture affects brain structure. See AS Psychology textbook: pp.68
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Nature Nurture Interaction
Maguire et al. Conclusion - It appears the brain has the capacity for plasticity (the ability to change)- the structure of the brain can alter in response to environmental demands.
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Studies Nature Nurture Interactionist AS (1) AS (2) A2 (1) A2 (2)
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Nature A2 Study The nature approach highlights that biology can play a role in criminal behaviour and in particular the role of genes in explaining behaviour. Evidence from Christiansen (1977) looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark and found a 52% concordance rate for criminality in MZ twins (monozygotic twins) and a 22% concordance for DZ (dizygotic twins). His study shows that genes influence one’s behaviour in particular criminal behaviour as the concordance rate is higher for MZ twins compared to DZ twins. This study looks at crime in an objective manner whereby the relationship between crime and genes may be established to some degree relating to the nature approach.
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Nurture AS Study Bandura illustrated in his study how the environment does shape our behaviour – in this case aggression. This relates to the nurture approach. He conducted a lab experiment on 73 children and showed that social behaviour (aggression) can be acquired through imitation and observation through the environment rather than through genetics or physiological factors. The influence of role models also plays a key role in aggression. The study showed that children who were exposed to aggression immediately imitated and displayed aggression towards the bobo doll afterwards such as kicking and punching the bobo doll than those exposed to non-violence did not display any aggression. This study has social implications for how crimes may be imitated through the media. This suggests that nurture may contribute to the development of aggressive behaviour.
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Nurture A2 Study Farrington’s research relates to the social approach he looked at various factors related to upbringing and the environment. He also focuses on the developmental approach as he looked at the development of offending from ages 8 to 48 using extensive interviews which once again relates to the nurture side of the debate. Farrington’s study considers a more ‘holistic’ approach by looking at the influence of several factors affecting criminal behaviour in particular environmental factors. Farrington found that offenders from childhood to adulthood in families tend to deviate in many aspects of their lives. The most importance risk factors are criminality in family, poverty, poor child rearing and poor school performance. This shows that nurture plays a significant role in criminal behaviour and early intervention programmes are important in targeting those under 10.
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Strengths and Weaknesses
Nature Nurture Nature- Nurture Debate
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Here are Your Possibilities
12 mark questions Here are Your Possibilities What are the strengths and weaknesses of explaining behaviour: through the nature/nurture debate? (12 marks) from a nature viewepoint? (12 marks) from a nurture viewepoint? (12 marks) You need 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses with EVIDENCE. The structure should be PCEC.
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What are the strengths and weaknesses of explaining behaviour through a nature viewpoint?
Explaining behaviour from a nature viewpoint is objective as methods used to look at behaviour are usually physiological in nature. Explaining behaviour through the nature approach helps to see a clearer cause & effect between behaviour. WEAKNESSES A weakness of explaining behaviour from a nature viewpoint is that it creates the ‘labelling effect’ whereby individuals feel that they have no control over their behaviour. Reductionist explanation as it only explains behaviour from a situational point of view and ignores developmental and social factors in explaining behaviour.
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What are the strengths and weaknesses of explaining behaviour through a nurture viewpoint?
Point: Considers a wide range of factors within the situation that can influence one’s behaviour. This allows for intervention programmes to be implemented. Point: The nurture approach uses studies that adopt a wide range of methods to explain behaviour so data gathering is more holistic. WEAKNESSES Point: Reductionist explanation as it only explains behaviour from a situational point of view and ignores biological and cognitive factors in explaining behaviour. Point: Harder to establish cause & effect as a number of variables are looked at simultaneously.
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What are the strengths of explaining behaviour through a nurture viewpoint?
Point: The nurture approach uses studies that adopt a wide range of factors that contribute to the behaviour. This suggests a more holistic approach to explaining behaviour. Comment: This is a strength because… Evidence: Farrington’s study shows that various factors play a role in explaining crime. This includes family background, interaction with others, type of parenting, siblings and environment. Comment: This is a strength because behaviour is being looked at from different angles and hence a range of suitable treatment programmes can be implemented to deal with the individual. This does not limit behaviour to just one factor.
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What are the strengths of explaining behaviour through the nature-nurture debate?
Point: It views human behaviour from a holistic approach, acknowledging that both biological and environmental factors can influence our behaviour. Point: WEAKNESSES Point: It is difficult to separate whether human behaviour is caused by nature or nurture as sometimes it is a combination of both. Both viewpoints on its own are reductionist as they limit behaviour to one explanation.
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Weaknesses of the debate
Point: It is difficult to separate whether human behaviour is caused by nature or nurture as sometimes it is a combination of both. Both viewpoints on its own are reductionist as they limit behaviour to one explanation. Comment: This is a weakness because…. Evidence: Bandura’s study showed that children who observed a aggressive model behaved more aggressively towards the bobo doll. However, they also found that boys displayed more physical aggression than girls and this could account for the nature side of the debate since boys by nature have more aggressive hormones than girls. Explain: Evidence does suggest that there is a definite connection between the hormonal effects of testosterone and the outward expression of aggressive behaviour. Therefore the concept of nurture influencing behaviour is not fully valid as nature could have a role too. Comment: What implication does this have for us in every day psychology?
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Conclusion Human behaviour is far too complex to pick one side of an approach in explaining behaviour and therefore an interactionalist approach should be adopted. Genes do play a surprisingly important role for almost all complex traits, whether behavioural or medical. But individual differences in complex traits are due at least as much to environmental influences as they are to genetic influences.
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Applications/ Usefulness of the nature-nurture debate.
Topic Nature Nurture Treatment for mental illness Medication Therapy and social support
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Links to perspectives and approaches?
Links to other debates? Reductionism/ holism Determinism Ethics (only with some) Links to perspectives and approaches? What perspectives have we been looking at predominately? Why? Links to research methodologies? Twin studies
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Homework: Exam style question (40 marks)
Outline the nature and nurture debate in Psychology (4 marks) Describe two pieces of evidence that support the nature debate (8 marks) What are the strengths and weaknesses of the nature/nurture debate? (12 marks) E: Discuss how research on nature/nurture is useful in our understanding of everyday life (8 marks) E: Using evidence, discuss how the nature explanation can be seen as reductionist? (8 marks)
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Reflection: Thinking routines
What makes you YOU? Nature vs Nurture How is the nature-nurture debate like growing a tree?
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Learning Intentions: Outline the nature and nurture debate in Psychology. Describe two pieces of research that support nature. Describe two pieces of research that support nurture. Discuss the strengths and limitations of nature and nurture in research. Discuss the strengths and limitations of the nature-nurture debate in research. Explain how the nature and nurture debate is useful to everyday life. (individuals and society).
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