1. 1 A LKYL H ALIDES S TRUCTURE Alkyl halides (R−X) have an alkyl group joined to a halogen atom by a single bond. As you go down the periodic table, the size of the halogen atom increases the C−X bond is longer the C−X bond is weaker The C−X bond is polar.

2. 2 I NTERESTING A LKYL H ALIDES important solvent general anesthetic refrigerant and aerosol propellant nonstick coating plastic used in films, pipes, and insulation

3. 3 I NTERESTING A LKYL H ALIDES pesticide

4. 4 They can be classified as 1⁰, 2⁰, or 3⁰ alkyl halides:

5. 5 N OMENCLATURE The systematic (IUPAC) name treats the compound as a haloalkane, while the common name treats the compound as an alkyl halide.

6. 6 IUPAC names: 1.Identify and name the parent. 2.Identify and name the substituents. 3.Number the parent chain and assign a locant to each substituent. 4.If more than one of the same kind of halogen is present, use prefix di, tri, tetra. 5.If there are several different halogens, number them and list them in alphabetical order. 6-bromo-2,3,3-trichloro-5-methylheptane

7. 7 Common names: 1.name all the carbon atoms of the molecule as a single alkyl group. 2.name the halogen bonded to the alkyl group. 3.combine the names of the alkyl group and halide, separating the words with a space sec-butyl bromide (2-bromobutane)

8. 8 P HYSICAL P ROPERTIES Their boiling points (melting points) are higher than those of the parent alkanes due to higher molar masses (London forces) and polarizability of X. butane0°C butyl fluoride33°C butyl chloride78°C butyl bromide102°C butyl iodide131°C

9. 9 BP (MP) of branched chains are lower than BP (MP) of unbranched isomers. They are essentially insoluble in water (no H-bonding possible; except for alkyl fluorides). The densities of liquid alkyl halides are greater than those of hydrocarbons of comparable molar mass. Alkyl fluorides and monochlorides usually less dense than water. Iodides, bromides and polychlorides usually more dense than water. CH 3 Cl 0.92 g/mL CH 3 (CH 2 ) 6 CH 2 F 0.8 g/mL CH 2 Cl 2 1.4 g/mL CH 3 Br 1.7 g/mL CH 3 I 2.3 g/mL

10. 10 P REPARATION OF A LKYL H ALIDES A.From alkanes R−Cl or R−Br can be obtained from alkanes by reaction with Cl 2 (g) or Br 2 (g), in the presence of heat or UV light. The reaction involves a radical chain mechanism. Not a good synthesis because a mixture of halogenated products is usually obtained (hard to control). Regioselective in the order 3⁰ H > 2⁰ H > 1⁰H

11. 11 B.From alkenes Addition of bromine or chlorine gas at room temperature (anti-addition) Addition of HCl, HBr, HI to alkenes gives Markovnikov product. It involves carbocation intermediate which may rearrange. If a peroxide is added (HBr only), the reaction gives the anti-Markovnikov product. Allylic bromination of alkenes with NBS (radical halogenation)

12. 12 C.From alkynes Alkynes react with two equivalent of hydrogen halide to produce geminal dihaloalkanes. Dihalogenation of alkynes result in tetrahaloalkanes.

13. 13 D.From alcohols Reaction of 1⁰, 2⁰ or 3⁰ alcohol with HX (X = Cl, Br, I) gives R−X. Methyl alcohols or 1⁰ alcohols usually S N 2. 2⁰ and 3⁰ alcohols undergo S N 1 with formation of carbocation intermediate. Thionyl chloride (SOCl 2 ) and phosphorus pentachloride (PCl 5 ) converts alcohols into alkyl chlorides ROH + PCl 5 → RCl + POCl 3 + HCl ROH + SOCl 2 → RCl + SO 2 + HCl (heat, base to mop up HCl byproduct) Phosphorus tribromide (PBr 3 ) converts alcohols into alkyl bromides. 3ROH + PBr 3 → 3RBr + P(OH) 3

14. 14

15. 15 E. From other halides Proceeds via nucleophilic substitution reactions.

16. 16 R EACTIONS OF A LKYL H ALIDES A.Nucleophilic substitution reactions Alkyl halides react with nucleophiles in substitution reactions (S N 1 and S N 2). The S N 2 reaction: Nucleophile forms a new bond to carbon at the same time as the bond to the halogen is broken. The reaction is bimolecular: rate = k[Nu][RX] Reaction leads to inversion (or change) of stereochemistry at a chiral centre. Reactivity: CH 3 X > RCH 2 X > R 2 CHX > R 3 CX

17. 17 The S N 1 reaction: Initial cleavage of the carbon–halogen bond to form an intermediate carbocation. The reaction is unimolecular: rate = k[RX] Reaction leads to racemisation. Reactivity: R 3 CX > R 2 CHX > RCH 2 X > CH 3 X The better the leaving group, the faster the rate of both S N 1 and S N 2 reactions. Leaving group ability: I − > Br − > Cl − > F −

18. 18 B.Elimination reactions Alkyl halides react with bases in elimination reactions (E1 and E2). The E2 reaction: The C−C bond begins to form at the same time as the C−H and C−X bonds begin to break. The reaction is bimolecular: rate = k[base][RX] RX must adopt an antiperiplanar shape Stereospecific The E1 reaction: Initial cleavage of the carbon–halogen bond to form an intermediate carbocation. The reaction is unimolecular, rate = k[RX] No particular geometry required

19. 19 C.Formation of organolithium and organomagnesium (Grignard reagents) compounds They are prepared from alkyl (or aryl) halides. The reactions are carried out under anhydrous conditions. Order of reactivity: RI > RBr > RCl The alkyl group behaves like a carbanion (nucleophile). They are strong bases and react rapidly with protons to form hydrocarbons.

20. 20 Alkyl dihalides do not yield satisfactory Grignard reagents due to polymerization. Grignard reagents form complexes with solvent (stabilization).

21. 21 S PECTROSCOPY A.MS Mass spectra of alkyl chlorides and alkyl bromides show the presence of an important M + 2 peak. For Cl, M : M + 2 = 3:1 and for Br, M : M + 2 = 1:1 The most important fragmentation mechanism is the simple loss of the halogen atom, leaving a carbocation. They may also lose a molecule of hydrogen halide. B.IR Difficult, C−X absorption occurs at very low frequencies. C.NMR The α-hydrogen will be deshielded and its chemical shift will increase.