1. Structure and function of wetlands To understand the function of ecosystems, detecting spatio-temporal changes in structures is prerequisite. Function ⇔ Structure To understand the structures: Classification of wetlands (= confused) Peat Soil Tussock

2. Wetlands are areas where the water table is at or above the level of the ground most of the year. (Mader 1985) Wetlands = mires + marshes (Gore 1983) Mire:= bog + fen Bog: ombrotrophic type. Eg. Sphagnum Fen: minerotrophic type. Eg. Reeds, sedges Marsh: rushes and sedges are dominated (dry site  meadow) Swamp: permanently waterlogged ground, often dominated by woody shrubs, such as willows and alders (e.g., mangrove) + reed swamp Shallow water: dominated by aquatic plants Lake and sea: trivial Bog Fen Water table ⑥ ① ④ ⑤ ② ③ ⑦⑧

3. (l) Figure 8.9. Plants of wetland habitats. (a) Typha latifolia. (b) Sedge, Carex sp. (c) Reed, Phragmites communis. (d) Heather, Calluna vulgaris. (e) Labrador tea, Ledum palstre. (f) Leather leaf, Chamaedaphne calyculata. (g) Crowberry, Empetrum nigrum. (h) Bog cotton, Eriohprum vaginatum. (i) Cranberry, Oxycoccus palustris. (j) Drosera sp. (sundew). (k) Utricularia sp. (bladewort). (l) Sphagnum papillosum (peat moss) (Burrows 1990)

4. Bog Plants in peatland root in the peat and get nutrients from flowing rain water Classification based on the dominant lifeforms Open bogs – Sphagnum Shrubby bogs – shrubby tundra often dominated by Ericaceous shrubs Treed bogs: black spruce – Sphagnum Representative bogs in Hokkaido Sarobetsu ( サロベツ ) Kiritappu ( 霧多布 ) Kushiro ( 釧路 )

5. Fen Peatland influenced by flowing surface water and/or discharged groundwater Classification based on the dominant lifeforms Graminoid fens Shrubby fens – birch and willows Treed fens (e.g., black spruce forest) Representative fens in Hokkaido Yufutsu ( 勇払 ) Furen ( 風連 ) ⇒ Most of wetlands develop bog-fen complexes ⇒ Topographical diversity hypothesis

6. Fig. 5. Schematic cross- section through a hummock and hollow system in a mixed mire influenced by volcanic ash (Furen Mire, eastern Hokkaido). (Wolejko & Ito 1986) ZoneA: with water supplied only by precipitation B: influenced by water enriched by nutrients from volcanic ash Drosera rotundifolia (Ds), Menyanthes trifoliata (Mt), Carex limosa (Cl), Rhynchospora alba (Ra), Utricularia intermedia (Ui), Sphagnum papilosum (S), Myrica gale var. tomentosa (Mg), Ledum palustre var. diversipliosum (Lp), Chamaedaphne calyculata (Cc), Eriophorum vaginatum (Ev), Oxycoccus quadripetalus (Oq), Empetrum nigrum (Ep), Sanguisorba tenuifolla var. alba (St)*, Sphagnum fuscum (Sf), Phragmites australis (Pa)*, Hosta rectifolia (Hr)*, Sphagnum palustre (Sp)*. *: frequent in vegetation of eutrophic fens in Japan. A B 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 cm Bog-fen complex

7. Figure 2: Schematic illustration of plant establishment patterns with reference to topography. Top: Microtopograhy and plant establishment pattern in Ouhailao. Bottom: Kaharqiao. BS = Blysmus sinocompressus. CH = Chamaesium paradoxum. CM = Carex meyeriana. CP = Cremanthodium pleurocaule. CS = Caltha scapiosa. JC = Juncus concinnum. KT = Kobresia tibetica. PC = Poa chalarantha. RP = Ranunculus pedicularis. TA = Thalictrum alpinum. (Tsuyuzaki 2006) Hummock-hollow complex (Bulte-schlenke complex) 50 cm 200 cm0 Hollow Hummock (mound) Kermi

8. High moor Intermediate moor Low moor Developmental process of peatland Plan view Section view Initial stage ■ Low moor peat ■ High moor peat Peatland : land covered with (thick) peat

9. Types of peat Peat ≈ thick organic soil layer (defined for soil science) = accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter (defined for plant ecology) Low moor peat ≈ reed (Phragmites communis) sedges, often forming tussocks alder (Alnus japonica) Intermediate moor peat ≈ cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) Japanese moor grass (Moliniopsis japonica) Horomui sedge (Carex middendorfii) High moor peat ≈ peat moss (Sphagnum spp.) ⇒ determined by topography, climate, succession, etc.

10. Peat or peat soil High water-holding capacity after drying Used for Sphagnum moss Peat gardening peat bath fuel Sarobetsu, Soya District (1997) Major component of peat Upper layer: Sphagnum, Carex, and Vaccinium Lower layer: Phragmites and Alnus